Protective effects of flavonoids from the leaves of Carya cathayensis Sarg. against H2O2‑induced oxidative damage and apoptosis in vitro
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- Published online on: October 13, 2021 https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2021.10878
- Article Number: 1443
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Copyright: © Zhou et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
Abstract
Introduction
Vascular pathologies rank amongst the most life-threatening diseases in the world, and the cause of the majority of these vascular pathologies is dysfunctional endothelial cells (1). Endothelial cells cover the inner surface of all blood vessels and play a notable role in maintaining normal vascular function, regulating blood circulation and exchanging substances in blood (2). Oxidative stress refers to the cytopathological consequences when cells are exposed to a high concentration of oxygen or chemical derivatives of oxygen (3), which are among the factors that induce endothelial dysfunction (4). Oxidative stress is associated with the occurrence and development of cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, atherosclerosis and heart failure (5). Therefore, protecting endothelial cells from oxidative injury and apoptosis represents a beneficial strategy for the treatment of vascular diseases. At present, the majority of antioxidant drugs are chemical drugs. These chemicals have some limitations, including varying degrees of toxicity, residual effects, deformities and potential carcinogenicity. Therefore, it is of great clinical significance to screen effective and safe natural oxygen free radical scavengers as substitutes for synthetic antioxidants.
Natural products have been a rich source of compounds for drug discovery and represent attractive alternatives for disease prevention and treatment (6,7). To date, numerous studies have been conducted to find effective drugs to block oxidative damage (4,8). The ability of various bioactive flavonoids from natural products and traditional Chinese medicine to scavenge free radicals have been reported (9,10). Wen et al (11) have demonstrated that flavonoids extracted from Traditional Chinese medicine and natural plants are broad-spectrum free radical scavengers that can effectively eliminate free radicals in the body and play an antioxidant role (11). Chen et al (12) identified 12 flavonoid components in lotus plumule and demonstrated their significant antioxidant activity. Wei et al (13) isolated ten flavonoid derivatives from the fruits of Metaplexis japonica, whose antibacterial and antioxidant activities were also revealed in their study.
Carya cathayensis Sarg., a deciduous tree belonging to the hickory family, has been widely used as a conventional folk medicine for thousands of years. It was commercially cultivated in the Zhejiang and Anhui provinces of China (14). The effectiveness of the anticancer, free radical scavenging, cardiotonic, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive actions of the husk and kernel of Carya cathayensis Sarg. was reported (15); however, the value of the leaves of Carya cathayensis Sarg. (LCCS) remains sparsely investigated. In our previous study, total flavonoids (TFs) were demonstrated to be abundant in the LCCS (16), and five flavonoid monomers, cardamonin (Car), pinostrobin chalcone (PC), wogonin (Wo), chrysin (Chr) and pinocembrin (Pin) (Fig. 1) were separated from the TFs (17). In addition, the pharmaceutical properties of TFs, for example, anti-inflammatory activity (12), antitumor activity (18), anti-early atherosclerosis lesion formation in vivo (19) and anti-human umbilical vein endothelial cell senescence (13) have been investigated. However, the activities of flavonoids from LCCS against H2O2-induced oxidative damage in vitro remain poorly investigated.
The present study aimed to investigate the potential antioxidant effects of TFs and flavonoid monomers from LCCS on H2O2-induced oxidative damage in rat aortic endothelial cells (RAECs). Fig. 2 describes the mechanisms by which the TFs and Car from LCCS protect against H2O2-induced apoptosis.
Materials and methods
Materials and regents
LCCS was obtained in 2016 from Lin'an (Zhejiang, China). The plants were authenticated by Professor Zhishan Ding from Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang,China. The voucher specimens were deposited in the laboratory center of the Medical Technology College at Zhejiang Chinese Medical University (Hangzhou, China; voucher no. LCC-20160915-G). The TFs were extracted from LCCS according to the method described in our previous study (17). Analytical grade H2O2 was purchased from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. PC and Pin were further separated and purified from TFs. Car, Wo and Chr were obtained from Shanghai Yuanye Biotechnology, Co., Ltd. and Beijing Aoke Biological Technology Co., Ltd. Malondialdehyde (MDA; cat. no. A003-4-1), superoxide dismutase (SOD; cat. no. A001-3-2), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH; cat. no. A020-2-2) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px; cat. no. A005-1-2) assay kits were all purchased from Nanjing Jiancheng Bioengineering Institute. A FITC Annexin V apoptosis detection kit was purchased from BD Biosciences (cat. no. 556547). Antibodies against caspase-3 (cat. no. YM3431), Bax (cat. no. YT0455), Bcl-2 (cat. no. YT0470), β-actin (cat. no. YM3028), Akt (cat. no. YT6111), phosphorylated (p)-Akt (cat. no. YP0590), ERK (cat. no. YT1624), p-ERK (cat. no. YP0101), JNK (cat. no. YT2441), p-JNK (Thr183/Tyr185; cat. no. YP0157), p38 (cat. no. YT3514) and p-p38 MAPK (Thr180/Tyr182; cat. no. YP0338) were supplied by ImmunoWay Biotechnology Company. Horseradish peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG (cat. no. abs20002) and goat anti-mouse IgG (cat. no. abs20003) were purchased from Aibixin (Shanghai) Biotechnology Co., Ltd. An MTS assay kit (cat. no. G3580) with 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazoll-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium reagent and an inner salt was purchased from Promega Corporation. A First Strand complementary (c)DNA Synthesis kit was used (Takara Bio, Inc.) and SYBR® Premix Ex Taq™ II were purchased from Takara Bio, Inc.
Cell culture
The RAECs were purchased from Yingwan Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (cat. no. C3048) The RAECs were cultured in DMEM supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated FBS (cat. no. 70220-8611; Zhejiang Tianhang Biotechnology Co., Ltd.), 100 mg/ml streptomycin and 100 U/ml penicillin at 37˚C in a humidified 5% CO2 incubator.
Determination of TFs and the concentrations of five flavonoids using MTS assay
The effects of TFs and five flavonoids (Car, PC, Won, Chr and Pin) on the proliferation of RAEC cell lines were evaluated using the MTS assay. Briefly, cells were seeded in 96-well plates at a density of 1.5x105 cells/well in phenol-free red DMEM/F12 (1:1) medium with 10% CS-FBS purchased from Biosharp Biotechnology Co., Ltd (cat. no. BL305A). After incubation at 37˚C for 24 h, the cells were treated with TFs at 0, 5, 10, 20, 40 and 80 µg/ml, or the five flavonoids (Car, PC, Won, Chr and Pin) at 0, 5, 10, 20, 40 and 80 µM for 24 h. Subsequently, 20 µl of MTS solution was added to each well and incubated for an additional 2 h at 37˚C in a CO2 incubator. The absorbance values were detected by a microplate reader (Dynatech Nevada, Inc.) at 490 nm. The average cell activity was calculated according to the following formula: Percentage of cell viability = [optical density (OD) of TFs and five flavonoid cells/OD of control cells] x100. The oxidative stress injury model induced by H2O2 was established using the MTS assay. Briefly, RAECs were cultured in a 96-well microtiter plate at a density of 1.5x105 cells/well at 37˚C for 24 h. After that, RAECs were exposed to H2O2 (0, 50, 100, 150, 200 or 400 µM) for 24 h. Subsequently, RAECs were treated with appropriate H2O2 concentrations for 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8 h. Cell viability was measured by MTS assay as aforementioned.
Cell viability assay
RAECs were cultured in a 96-well microtiter plate at a density of 1.5x105 cells/well for 24 h, and the cells were divided into the following five groups: i) Control group; ii) model group; iii) quercetin (Que) group (20 µM); iv) TF group (5 µg/ml, 10 µg/ml, 20 µg/ml); v) five flavonoids group (5, 10 and 20 µM). Subsequently, the RAECs were treated with TFs and five flavonoids at 37˚C for 24 h, followed by 100 µM H2O2 treatment at 37˚C for 2 h to establish an injury model. Control group cells were cultured with 200 µl of complete medium. Quercetin was used as a positive control (20). Briefly, 20 µl of MTS solution was added to each well and incubated for an additional 2 h at 37˚C in a CO2 incubator. The absorbance values were detected by a microplate reader (Dynatech Nevada, Inc.) at 490 nm. The morphology of the cells was observed using a Nikon ECLIPSE Ti fluorescence inverted microscope (magnification, x20; Nikon Instruments Inc.), and images were captured.
Determination of intracellular MDA, LDH, SOD, and GSH-Px
To assess the effects of TFs and Car on oxidative injury in RAECs, RAECs were plated in a six-well plate at a density of 1.5x105 cells/ml (2.5 ml/well) and cultured as described above. After pretreatment with TFs or Car for 24 h, cells were exposed to H2O2 for 2 h at 37˚C. The supernatant of each group was collected to evaluate the LDH and MDA levels. The cells in each group were digested and collected with 0.25% trypsin, and the cell homogenate was obtained by ultrasonic crushing. The adherent cells were lysed and then centrifuged at 4˚C and 12,000 x g for 15 min to collect the supernatant. The activities of SOD and GSH-Px were measured according to the manufacturer's instructions for the assay kits.
Apoptosis analysis by flow cytometry
An Annexin V-FITC detection kit was used to determine the effects of TFs and Car on apoptosis induced by H2O2. Briefly, cells were seeded into a six-well plate and treated as described above. After harvesting by trypsin, the cells were washed twice with precooled PBS, centrifuged at 4˚C and 500 x g/min for 5 min to remove the cell debris, and then re-suspended in 1X binding buffer. A 100 µl cell suspension was placed in a 5 ml flow tube, and the cells were stained with FITC Annexin V and propidium iodide (PI) for 15 min at room temperature. Cells were quantified using flow cytometry (BD Biosciences; Accuri C6 ) within 1 h. The percentage distributions of normal (viable), early apoptotic, late apoptotic and necrotic cells were calculated using Summit software (FCS Express 5; version 3.0).
Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR)
RAECs were treated with 5, 10 and 20 µg/ml of TFs, and 5, 10 and 20 µM of Car for 24 h, followed by 100 µM H2O2 treatment for 2 h to establish an injury model. Total cell RNA was extracted using TRIzol® (Invitrogen; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The instructions of the First Strand cDNA Synthesis kit were followed to synthesize cDNA by RT-PCR. SYBR Green real-time fluorescent quantitative PCR was used to detect the mRNA expression levels of caspase-3, Bax and Bcl-2 in each group of cells, and the reactions were carried out using Step One Plus Real-Time PCR (Applied Biosystems; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.). The reaction system was SYBR Premix EX Taq™ II 10 µl, upstream primer 0.5 µl, downstream primer 0.5 µl, cDNA 0.5 µl and ddH2O 8.5 µl. The reaction condition were 95˚C for 5 min and then 40 cycles of 95˚C for 20 sec, 55˚C for 20 sec and 72˚C for 15 sec. The primers used are listed in Table I and were synthesized by Shanghai Shenggong Biology Engineering Technology Service, Ltd. All experimental procedures were in accordance with the manufacturer's protocols. The expression of mRNA was analyzed by the 2-ΔΔCq method (21).
Western blotting
Total cytosolic protein of RAECs cultured with various concentrations of TFs and Car for 24 h and injured by H2O2 for 2 h as aforementioned. Cells were washed twice with cold PBS and lysed by cold lysis buffer (RIPA:PMSF=100:1) for 40 min on ice. Cell lysates were centrifuged at 12,000 x g for 15 min at 4˚C. The protein concentration was determined using a BCA protein assay kit according to the manufacturer's instructions. Harvested proteins were denatured at 100˚C for 10 min, 50 µg of protein/per lane from each sample was electrophoresed by SDS-PAGE and then transferred onto PVDF membranes. Membranes were blocked with 5% non-fat milk in TBS with 0.5% Tween-20 at room temperature for 2 h, followed by overnight incubation at 4˚C with primary antibodies (caspase-3, Bax, Bcl-2, β-actin, Akt, ERK, JNK, p38 MAPK, p-ERK, p-JNK and p-p38 MAPK) at a dilution of 1:1,000. Subsequently, the blots were incubated with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG (1:5,000) for 2 h at room temperature and detected using an enhanced chemiluminescence system. The bands were quantified by densitometry analysis with ImageJ software (National Institutes of Health; version, 1.8.0.112).
Statistical analysis
All studies were performed with three independent experiments. All data were analyzed using GraphPad Prism 8.0 software (GraphPad Software, Inc.). The data are expressed as the means ± standard deviation for continuous variables. Comparisons between groups were performed using one-way ANOVA, and normally distributed data were analyzed using Tukey's multiple comparisons post hoc test. Non-normally distributed data were analyzed using Dunn's test for intergroup comparisons. P<0.05 was considered to indicate a statistically significant difference.
Results
TFs and five monomeric flavonoids inhibit H2O2-induced injury in RAECs
As presented in Fig. 3A, treatment with 0-400 µM H2O2 for 24 h significantly decreased the survival rate of RAECs in a concentration-dependent manner (P<0.01). The cell viability decreased to 54.73±4.91% when the concentration of H2O2 increased to 100 µM. As presented in Fig. 3B, the cell viability decreased to 61.83±2.73% after 2 h of treatment, which was significantly different compared with that of the untreated group (P<0.01). Based on these results, 100 µM H2O2 for 2 h was selected as the treatment condition for the following experiments.
The results demonstrate that treatments with TFs and five monomeric flavonoids (Car, PC, Wo, Chr and Pin) at concentrations >40 µg/ml and 40 µM, respectively, inhibited cell proliferation compared with the control groups (P<0.01). Therefore, the optimal treatment concentrations for TFs (5, 10 and 20 µg/ml) and five monomeric flavonoids (5, 10 and 20 µM) were selected for subsequent experiments (Fig. 3C).
To assess the protective effects of TFs and five monomeric flavonoids on H2O2-induced injury, RAECs were pretreated with TFs (5, 10 or 20 µg/ml) and five monomeric flavonoids (5, 10 or 20 µM) for 24 h before exposure to 100 µM H2O2 for 2 h. As presented in Fig. 3D, the rate of cell viability was significantly decreased in the model group compared with the control group (P<0.01), and the cell viability after pretreatment with TFs and Car was significantly higher compared with that of the model group. TFs and Car displayed a protective effect that was close to that of quercetin (the positive control). However, a protective effect was not observed in cells treated with Wo, PC, Chr and Pin. Therefore, TFs and Car were selected for further antioxidant and antiapoptotic studies.
The morphologies of the cells were spindle shaped with clear and bright boundaries in the control group. In the H2O2 group, large numbers of suspended cells and cell fragments were observed. In the cells pretreated with TFs and Car, the shrinkage of cells decreased and few suspended cells and cell fragments were observed. The protective effect was dose-dependent, and its effect was similar to that of quercetin (Fig. 3E).
Effect of TFs and Car on LDH, MDA, GSH-Px and SOD levels
To determine the effects of TFs and Car on oxidative stress in RAECs, the levels of LDH, MDA, GSH-Px and SOD were measured. As presented in Fig. 4A and B, the levels of LDH and MDA in the supernatant of the model group were significantly increased compared with those in the control group (P<0.01). Compared with the model group, treatment with TFs and Car significantly reduced the production of LDH and MDA in a dose-dependent manner (P<0.05). In the model group, the contents of GSH-Px and SOD were significantly reduced compared with those in the control group (P<0.01). After pretreatment with TFs and Car, the activity of GSH-Px and SOD was markedly increased compared with that of the model group (Fig. 4C and D).
TFs and Car suppresses H2O2-induced intracellular ROS production
Intracellular ROS play an important role in oxidative stress-induced cell damage. In the model group, intracellular ROS generation was significantly increased by >3.8-fold compared with that in the control group (P<0.01; Fig. 5). In contrast, the relative fluorescence intensities were reduced by 1.04±0.05, 1.36±0.05 and 1.60±0.06 in the 5, 10 and 20 µg/ml TF-pretreated groups, and by 1.26±0.04, 1.34±0.02 and 1.55±0.06 in the 5, 10 and 20 µM CAR-pretreated groups, respectively. Therefore, pretreatment with TFs and Car prevented the elevation of ROS levels in a dose-dependent manner (P<0.01; Fig. 5).
Effect of TFs and Car on apoptosis in H2O2-induced RAECs
As presented in Fig. 6A, the apoptosis scatter plot can be divided into four quadrants: Upper left quadrant R1 (Annexin V-FITC)-/PI+, which refers to mechanically injured cells or a few late apoptotic cells; upper right quadrant R2 (Annexin V-FITC)+/PI+, for late apoptotic cells; lower left quadrant R3 (Annexin V-FITC)-/PI-, normal living cells; and the lower right quadrant R4 (Annexin V-FITC)+/PI-, which presents early apoptotic cells. The total apoptotic cells were the sum of early apoptotic cells and late apoptotic cells. As presented in Fig. 6B, in the normal control group, only a few cells were apoptotic and the apoptosis rate was 9.31±1.84%. Compared with the normal control group, large numbers of apoptotic cells and fragments were revealed in the H2O2 model group, and the apoptosis rate was 28.71±4.41% (P<0.01). Compared with the model group, the apoptotic rate of cells pretreated with TFs and Car resulted in a significant decrease (P<0.01). These results indicated that TFs and Car could inhibit the cell damage and apoptosis induced by H2O2.
TFs and Car downregulates apoptosis-related gene and protein expression levels in RAECs
To elucidate the molecular mechanism of the protective effect of TFs and Car against H2O2-induced oxidative damage in RAECs, the mRNA expression of apoptosis-related genes, including caspase-3, Bax and Bcl-2, were investigated. Compared with the control group, the relative expression levels of caspase-3 and Bax mRNA in the model group were significantly increased (P<0.01; Fig. 7A and B). Pretreatment with TFs and Car for 24 h significantly inhibited the mRNA expression levels of caspase-3 and Bax compared with the model group in a dose-dependent manner (P<0.01); furthermore, its effect was similar to that of the positive control drug, quercetin. In addition, the relative expression of Bcl-2 mRNA in the model group was significantly lower compared with that in the control group (P<0.01; Fig. 7C). Compared with the model group, cells pretreated with TFs and Car for 24 h significantly reduced the H2O2-induced inhibition of Bcl-2 mRNA expression (P<0.01), and both TFs and Car exhibited superior effects relative to quercetin (Fig. 7C).
Next, the expression of apoptosis-related proteins were examined, including caspase-3, Bcl-2 and Bax, using western blotting. Compared with the control group, H2O2 treatment caused significantly increased protein expression levels of caspase-3 (Fig. 7F) and Bax (Fig. 7D), and decreased protein expression of Bcl-2 (Fig. 7E) in the model group. By contrast, treatment with TFs significantly inhibited the elevation of caspase-3 and Bax protein levels while upregulating the expression of Bcl-2 protein compared with the control group (P<0.01). Similar effects were observed when cells were pretreated with Car. The expression levels of caspase-3 and Bax were significantly downregulated, and the expression of Bcl-2 was significantly upregulated. In addition, TFs and Car pretreatments attenuated the increase in the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio (Fig. 7G).
TFs and CAR regulate the expression levels of MAPKs and Akt phosphorylation
The Akt and MAPK pathways are important cell signaling pathways. To further demonstrate the antiapoptotic effects of TFs and Car, the roles of the Akt and MAPK pathways were investigated. The results indicated that the expression levels of p-ERK (Fig. 8A), p-JNK (Fig. 8B) and p-p38 MAPK (Fig. 8C) activation were significantly increased in the model group compared with the control group (P<0.01). Pretreatment with TFs and Car significantly attenuated the activation of all three MAPKs compared with the model group (all P<0.05). By contrast, H2O2 greatly decreased the phosphorylation of Akt compared with the control group, while treatment with TFs and Car significantly stimulated phosphorylation compared with the model group (P<0.01; Fig. 8D).
Discussion
The present study established an oxidative stress damage model by treating RAECs with H2O2 in vitro and investigated the protective effects of flavonoids against oxidative stress. The results indicated that TFs and Car could significantly inhibit injury in H2O2-induced RAECs, alleviate changes in nuclear morphology and cause cell-protective effects. Endothelial cells are important in maintaining the normal functions of blood vessels by producing and secreting multiple compounds (22). Abnormal endothelial structure and cellular malfunction are the main causes of numerous types of diseases, such as vasculitis, atherosclerosis and thrombosis (23).
ROS play an important role in the pathogenesis of endothelial dysfunction and cardiovascular diseases (24). The imbalance between the production of ROS and antioxidant defense can result in oxidative stress, which may give rise to metabolic impairment and cell death (25). The present study indicated that TFs and Car could partially suppress oxidative stress by decreasing the generation of ROS and demonstrated their potential to protect RAECs against damage by H2O2.
The degree of oxidative damage could be determined by the production of markers of oxidative damage products, such as MDA and LDH. MDA is one of the indexes used to measure the degree of oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation and cell viability. It indirectly reflects the degree of damage due to oxygen free radicals (26). LDH exists in cells and participates in glycolysis, and the activity of LDH can be used as an indicator of the degree of cell membrane damage, which is closely associated with apoptosis. In the present study, the results indicated that H2O2 dramatically increased MDA levels and LDH release in RAECs, while these effects were alleviated by treatment with TFs and Car. Therefore, these results suggested that TFs and Car could protect RAECs from oxidative damage.
Mammalian cells have developed an antioxidant defense system to protect against oxidative stress, and the defense system includes some essential antioxidant enzymes, such as SOD and GSH-Px (27,28). SOD activity indirectly reflects the ability to scavenge oxygen free radicals, which plays an important role in regulating the balance between oxidation and antioxidation (3). It can reduce the oxidative damage induced by superoxide anions. GSH-Px has the ability to reduce the toxic by-products of the synthetic pathway by catalyzing peroxidative intermediates to the intermediates used in metabolism (29). The main biological function of GSH-Px is to remove lipid peroxides and H2O2 (30). Therefore, the present study analyzed the activities of SOD and GSH-Px. The results demonstrated that TFs and Car enhanced the antioxidant defense system by increasing the activity of SOD and GSH-Px,which is consistent with the results of another study (31).
Oxidative damage induced by excessive ROS generation is known to be a potential inducer of apoptosis. Apoptosis is associated with two family members (Bcl-2 and Bax) and caspase family members (caspase-3, caspase-8 and caspase-9) (32). Bcl-2 family proteins, which usually regulate the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis, can be divided into two groups: Anti- and pro-apoptotic proteins. Bcl-2 and Bax proteins are the two main members of the Bcl-2 multigene family. Bcl-2 inhibits apoptosis, whereas Bax exerts a proapoptotic effect (33). In the present study, pretreatment with TFs and Car decreased Bax and caspase-3 protein expression and increased Bcl-2 protein expression. The imbalance of the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio switched on the apoptosis process (34). The increased Bax/Bcl-2 ratio transmitted apoptotic signals to caspase-9. Following activation, caspase-9 activates caspase-3, which is a key executor of apoptosis (35). The aforementioned process is known as the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway (36). As expected, the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio was significantly increased in the TF and Car groups compared with the model group of the present study. These results revealed that TFs and Car could regulate the expression of apoptosis-related proteins and inhibit the initiation of apoptosis.
A number of studies have demonstrated that the mechanisms of endothelial cell damage and apoptosis induced by H2O2 are associated with the MAPK pathway (36,37). When MAPKs are activated, they can phosphorylate their specific cascade proteins, thus controlling numerous cell activities, including cell proliferation, differentiation and cell death (30,34). The MAPK family, which comprises serine/threonine protein kinases, is involved in the ERK, JNK and p38-MAPK signaling pathways (38). Moreover, p38 and JNK can initiate the mitochondria-dependent intrinsic cell death pathway via the direct phosphorylation of the Bcl-2 family apoptotic protein Bax (39). The present study demonstrated that the phosphorylation levels of JNK, ERK and p38 MAPK were all markedly increased in the model group, while pretreatment with TFs and Car significantly attenuated this elevation. These results suggested that TFs and Car inhibited the activation of the JNK, ERK and p38 MAPK pathways.
Akt, a serine/threonine-protein kinase, plays a key role in multiple cellular processes, such as apoptosis, cell proliferation and migration (40). However, further experiments are needed to verify the results, and the mechanism can provide direction for preventing radiotherapy damage via the ROS pathway.
In conclusion, TFs and Car from LCC had a strong protective effect against H2O2-induced oxidative damage and apoptosis of RAECs in vitro. Anti-apoptotic activity may mediate mitochondrial Bcl-2 and Bax and inhibit activation of the survival signal-related factor caspase-3. The TFs extracted from LCC could be developed as effective and potential candidate drugs to prevent oxidative stress in the future, and they could also provide a novel direction for preventing antioxidant activity through the ROS pathway caused by radiation damage.
Acknowledgements
Not applicable.
Funding
This work was supported by Zhejiang Chinese Medical Science and Technology Program (grant no. 2019ZB120).
Availability of data and materials
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Authors' contributions
JJF conceived the study. FMZ and JJH performed the experiments, analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript. XJH and JW contributed to the methodology and data analysis. BQZ, SH and ZSD analyzed the data, and wrote and revised the manuscript. JJF acquired funding, contributed to resources, and supervised the study. FMZ and ZSD confirm the authenticity of all the raw data. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Patient consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
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