Pineal hormone melatonin as an adjuvant treatment for COVID‑19 (Review)
- Authors:
- Marilena Vlachou
- Angeliki Siamidi
- Aikaterini Dedeloudi
- Sofia K. Konstantinidou
- Ioannis P. Papanastasiou
-
Affiliations: Division of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece, First Department of Propaedeutic Internal Medicine and Diabetes Center, Medical School, Laiko General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece - Published online on: February 9, 2021 https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2021.4880
- Article Number: 47
-
Copyright: © Vlachou et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
This article is mentioned in:
Abstract
Zhou Y, Wang F, Tang J, Nussinov R and Cheng F: Artificial intelligence in COVID-19 drug repurposing. Lancet Digit Heal. 2:e667–e676. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar | |
Konstantinidou S and Papanastasiou I: Repurposing current therapeutic regimens against SARS-CoV-2 (Review). Exp Ther Med. 2:1845–1855. 2020. | |
Sidiropoulou P, Docea AO, Nikolaou V, Katsarou MS, Spandidos DA, Tsatsakis A, Calina D and Drakoulis N: Unraveling the roles of vitamin D status and melanin during COVID-19 (Review). Int J Mol Med. 47:92–100. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : | |
Zhang R, Wang X, Ni L, Di X, Ma B, Niu S, Liu C and Reiter RJ: COVID-19: Melatonin as a potential adjuvant treatment. Life Sci. 250:1175832020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Turek FW and Gillette MU: Melatonin, sleep, and circadian rhythms: Rationale for development of specific melatonin agonists. Sleep Med. 5:523–532. 2004. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Zlotos DP: Recent advances in melatonin receptor ligands. Arch Pharm (Weinheim). 338:229–247. 2005. View Article : Google Scholar | |
Jahanban-Esfahlan R, Mehrzadi S, Reiter RJ, Seidi K, Majidinia M, Baghi HB, Khatami N, Yousefi B and Sadeghpour A: Melatonin in regulation of inflammatory pathways in rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis: Involvement of circadian clock genes. Br J Pharmacol. 175:3230–3238. 2018. View Article : Google Scholar : | |
Kratz EM and Piwowar A: Melatonin, advanced oxidation protein products and total antioxidant capacity as seminal parameters of prooxidant-antioxidant balance and their connection with expression of metalloproteinases in context of male fertility. J Physiol Pharmacol. 68:659–668. 2017. | |
Olcese JM: Melatonin and female reproduction: An expanding universe. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 11:852020. View Article : Google Scholar | |
Hosseinzadeh A, Javad-Moosavi SA, Reiter RJ, Yarahmadi R, Ghaznavi H and Mehrzadi S: Oxidative/nitrosative stress, autophagy and apoptosis as therapeutic targets of melatonin in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Expert Opin Ther Targets. 22:1049–1061. 2018. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Hosseinzadeh A, Javad-Moosavi SA, Reiter RJ, Hemati K, Ghaznavi H and Mehrzadi S: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) signaling pathways and protective roles of melatonin. Life Sci. 201:17–29. 2018. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Luchetti F, Canonico B, Betti M, Arcangeletti M, Pilolli F, Piroddi M, Canesi L, Papa S and Galli F: Melatonin signaling and cell protection function. FASEB J. 24:3603–3624. 2010. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Hill SM, Belancio VP, Dauchy RT, Xiang S, Brimer S, Mao L, Hauch A, Lundberg PW, Summers W, Yuan L, et al: Melatonin: An inhibitor of breast cancer. Endocr Relat Cancer. 22:R183–R204. 2015. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Carlberg C: Gene regulation by melatonin. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 917:387–396. 2000. View Article : Google Scholar | |
Bahrampour Juybari K, Pourhanifeh MH, Hosseinzadeh A, Hemati K and Mehrzadi S: Melatonin potentials against viral infections including COVID-19: Current evidence and new findings. Virus Res. 287:1981082020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Weaver SC, Ferro C, Barrera R, Boshell J and Navarro JC: Venezuelan equine encephalitis. Annu Rev Entomol. 49:141–174. 2004. View Article : Google Scholar | |
Schoneboom BA, Lee JS and Grieder FB: Early expression of IFN-alpha/beta and iNOS in the brains of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus-infected mice. J Interferon Cytokine Res. 20:205–215. 2000. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Schoneboom BA, Fultz MJ, Miller TH, McKinney LC and Glieder FB: Astrocytes as targets for Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infection. J Neurovirol. 5:342–354. 1999. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Schoneboom BA, Catlin KMK, Marty AM and Grieder FB: Inflammation is a component of neurodegeneration in response to Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infection in mice. J Neuroimmunol. 109:132–146. 2000. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Cain MD, Salimi H, Gong Y, Yang L, Hamilton SL, Heffernan JR, Hou J, Miller MJ and Klein RS: Virus entry and replication in the brain precedes blood-brain barrier disruption during intranasal alphavirus infection. J Neuroimmunol. 308:118–130. 2017. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Keck F, Kortchak S, Bakovic A, Roberts B, Agrawal N and Narayanan A: Direct and indirect pro-inflammatory cytokine response resulting from TC-83 infection of glial cells. Virulence. 9:1403–1421. 2018. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Valero N, Mosquera J, Alcocer S, Bonilla E, Salazar J and Álvarez-Mon M: Melatonin, minocycline and ascorbic acid reduce oxidative stress and viral titers and increase survival rate in experimental Venezuelan equine encephalitis. Brain Res. 1622:368–376. 2015. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Montiel M, Bonilla E, Valero N, Mosquera J, Espina LM, Quiroz Y and Álvarez-Mon M: Melatonin decreases brain apoptosis, oxidative stress, and CD200 expression and increased survival rate in mice infected by Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Antivir Chem Chemother. 24:99–108. 2015. View Article : Google Scholar | |
Valero N, MarinaEspina L, Bonilla E and Mosquera J: Melatonin decreases nitric oxide production and lipid peroxidation and increases interleukin-1 beta in the brain of mice infected by the Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. J Pineal Res. 42:107–112. 2007. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Valero N, Meleán E, Bonilla E, Arias J, Espina LM, Chacin-Bonilla L, Larreal Y, Maldonado M and Añez F: In vitro, melatonin treatment decreases nitric oxide levels in murine splenocytes cultured with the venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. Neurochem Res. 30:1439–1442. 2005. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Tuñõn MJ, San-Miguel B, Crespo I, Laliena A, Vallejo D, Álvarez M, Prieto J and González-Gallego J: Melatonin treatment reduces endoplasmic reticulum stress and modulates the unfolded protein response in rabbits with lethal fulminant hepatitis of viral origin. J Pineal Res. 55:221–228. 2013. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Crespo I, Miguel BS, Laliena A, Álvarez M, Culebras JM, González-Gallego J and Tuñón MJ: Melatonin prevents the decreased activity of antioxidant enzymes and activates nuclear erythroid 2-related factor 2 signaling in an animal model of fulminant hepatic failure of viral origin. J Pineal Res. 49:193–200. 2010.PubMed/NCBI | |
Verdonschot J, Hazebroek M, Merken J, Debing Y, Dennert R, Brunner-La Rocca HP and Heymans S: Relevance of cardiac parvovirus B19 in myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy: Review of the literature. Eur J Heart Fail. 18:1430–1441. 2016. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Kühl U, Pauschinger M, Seeberg B, Lassner D, Noutsias M, Poller W and Schultheiss HP: Viral persistence in the myocardium is associated with progressive cardiac dysfunction. Circulation. 112:1965–1970. 2005. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Ouyang H, Zhong J, Lu J, Zhong Y, Hu Y and Tan Y: Inhibitory effect of melatonin on Mst1 ameliorates myocarditis through attenuating ER stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. J Mol Histol. 50:405–415. 2019. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Sang Y, Gu X, Pan L, Zhang C, Rong X, Wu T, Xia T, Li Y, Ge L, Zhang Y and Chu M: Melatonin ameliorates coxsackievirus B3-induced myocarditis by regulating apoptosis and autophagy. Front Pharmacol. 9:13842018. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Simko F, Hrenak J, Dominguez-Rodriguez A and Reiter RJ: Melatonin as a putative protection against myocardial injury in COVID-19 infection. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 13:921–924. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Junaid A, Tang H, van Reeuwijk A, Abouleila Y, Wuelfroth P, van Duinen V, Stam W, van Zonneveld AJ, Hankemeier T and Mashaghi A: Ebola hemorrhagic shock Syndrome-on-a-Chip. iScience. 23:1007652020. View Article : Google Scholar : | |
Martín Giménez VM, Inserra F, Tajer CD, Mariani J, Ferder L, Reiter RJ and Manucha W: Lungs as target of COVID-19 infection: Protective common molecular mechanisms of vitamin D and melatonin as a new potential synergistic treatment. Life Sci. 254:1178082020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Hill-Batorski L, Halfmann P, Neumann G and Kawaoka Y: The cytoprotective enzyme heme Oxygenase-1 suppresses ebola virus replication. J Virol. 87:13795–13802. 2013. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Hazra S, Chaudhuri AG, Tiwary BK and Chakrabarti N: Matrix metallopeptidase 9 as a host protein target of chloroquine and melatonin for immunoregulation in COVID-19: A network-based meta-analysis. Life Sci. 257:1180962020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Habtemariam S, Daglia M, Sureda A, Selamoglu Z, Fuat Gulhan M and Mohammad Nabavi S: Melatonin and respiratory diseases: A review. Curr Top Med Chem. 17:467–488. 2016. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Shim DW, Shin HJ, Han JW, Ji YE, Jang CH, Koppula S, Kang TB and Lee KH: A novel synthetic derivative of melatonin, 5-hydroxy-2'-isobutyl-streptochlorin (HIS), inhibits inflammatory responses via regulation of TRIF-dependent signaling and inflammasome activation. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 284:227–235. 2015. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Reiter RJ, Sharma R, Ma Q, Dominquez-Rodriguez A, Marik PE and Abreu-Gonzalez P: Melatonin inhibits COVID-19-induced cytokine storm by reversing aerobic glycolysis in immune cells: A mechanistic analysis. Med Drug Discov. 6:1000442020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Bouhafs RKL and Jarstrand C: Effects of antioxidants on surfactant peroxidation by stimulated human polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Free Radic Res. 36:727–734. 2002. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Zhang Y and Li X, Grailer JJ, Wang N, Wang M, Yao J, Zhong R, Gao GF, Ward PA, Tan DX and Li X: Melatonin alleviates acute lung injury through inhibiting the NLRP3 inflammasome. J Pineal Res. 60:405–414. 2016. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Soussia I Ben, Mies F, Naeije R and Shlyonsky V: Melatonin down-regulates volume-sensitive chloride channels in fibroblasts. Pflugers Arch. 464:273–285. 2012. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Farhood B, Aliasgharzadeh A, Amini P, Rezaeyan A, Tavassoli A, Motevaseli E, Shabeeb D, Musa AE and Najafi M: Mitigation of radiation-induced lung pneumonitis and fibrosis using metformin and melatonin: A histopathological study. Medicina (Kaunas). 55:4172019. View Article : Google Scholar | |
Hong S, Kim CY, Lee JE and Seong GJ: Agmatine protects cultured retinal ganglion cells from tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced apoptosis. Life Sci. 84:28–32. 2009. View Article : Google Scholar | |
Bosco AD, Schedler FB, Colares JR, Schemitt EG, Hartmann RM, Forgiarini Junior LA, Dias AS and Marroni NP: Melatonin effects on pulmonary tissue in the experimental model of hepatopulmonary syndrome. J Bras Pneumol. 45:e201701642019.In English, Portuguese. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Pita R, Marco-Contelles J, Ramos E, Del Pino J and Romero A: Toxicity induced by chemical warfare agents: Insights on the protective role of melatonin. Chem Biol Interact. 206:134–142. 2013. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Macit E, Yaren H, Aydin I, Kunak ZI, Yaman H, Onguru O, Uysal B, Korkmaz A, Turel S and Kenar L: The protective effect of melatonin and S-methylisothiourea treatments in nitrogen mustard induced lung toxicity in rats. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. 36:1283–1290. 2013. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Llinàs L, Peinado VI, Ramon Goñi J, Rabinovich R, Pizarro S, Rodriguez-Roisin R, Barberà JA and Bastos R: Similar gene expression profiles in smokers and patients with moderate COPD. Pulm Pharmacol Ther. 24:32–41. 2011. View Article : Google Scholar | |
Al-Rasheed NM, Fadda L, Attia HA, Sharaf IA, Mohamed AM and Al-Rasheed NM: Pulmonary prophylactic impact of melatonin and/or quercetin: A novel therapy for inflammatory hypoxic stress in rats. Acta Pharm. 67:125–135. 2017. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Jin H, Wang Y, Zhou L, Liu L, Zhang P, Deng W and Yuan Y: Melatonin attenuates hypoxic pulmonary hypertension by inhibiting the inflammation and the proliferation of pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells. J Pineal Res. 57:442–450. 2014. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Hardeland R: Aging, melatonin, and the pro-and anti-inflammatory networks. Int J Mol Sci. 20:12332019. View Article : Google Scholar | |
Sehirli AO, Sayiner S and Serakinci N: Role of melatonin in the treatment of COVID-19; as an adjuvant through cluster differentiation 147 (CD147). Mol Biol Rep. 47:8229–8233. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Wu GC, Peng CK, Liao WI, Pao HP, Huang KL and Chu SJ: Melatonin receptor agonist protects against acute lung injury induced by ventilator through up-regulation of IL-10 production. Respir Res. 21:652020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Al-Zaqri N, Pooventhiran T, Alsalme A, Warad I, John AM and Thomas R: Structural and physico-chemical evaluation of melatonin and its solution-state excited properties, with emphasis on its binding with novel coronavirus proteins. J Mol Liq. 318:1140822020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Kleszczyński K, Slominski AT, Steinbrink K and Reiter RJ: Clinical trials for use of melatonin to fight against COVID-19 are urgently needed. Nutrients. 12:25612020. View Article : Google Scholar | |
Wang R, Hozumi Y, Yin C and Wei GW: Mutations on COVID-19 diagnostic targets. Genomics. 112:5204–5213. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Shariare MH, Parvez MAK, Karikas GA and Kazi M: The growing complexity of COVID-19 drug and vaccine candidates: Challenges and critical transitions. J Infect Public Health. 14:214–220. 2021. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Shneider A, Kudriavtsev A and Vakhrusheva A: Can melatonin reduce the severity of COVID-19 pandemic? Int Rev Immunol. 39:153–162. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Shi J, Xiao Y, Zhang Y, Geng D, Cong D, Shi KX and Knapp RJ: Challenges of drug development during the COVID-19 pandemic: Key considerations for clinical trial designs. Br J Clin Pharmacol. Oct 29–2020.Epub ahead of print. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Parvathaneni V and Gupta V: Utilizing drug repurposing against COVID-19-Efficacy, limitations, and challenges. Life Sci. 259:1182752020. View Article : Google Scholar | |
Acuña-Castroviejo D, Escames G, Figueira JC, de la Oliva P, Borobia AM and Acuña-Fernández C: Clinical trial to test the efficacy of melatonin in COVID-19. J Pineal Res. 69:e126832020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Bourne RS, Mills GH and Minelli C: Melatonin therapy to improve nocturnal sleep in critically ill patients: Encouraging results from a small randomised controlled trial. Crit Care. 12:R522008. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Mistraletti G, Umbrello M, Sabbatini G, Miori S, Taverna M, Cerri B, Mantovani ES, Formenti P, Spanu P, D'Agostino A, et al: Melatonin reduces the need for sedation in ICU patients: A randomized controlled trial. Minerva Anestesiol. 81:1298–1310. 2015.PubMed/NCBI | |
Mistraletti G, Sabbatini G, Taverna M, Figini MA, Umbrello M, Magni P, Ruscica M, Dozio E, Esposti R, DeMartini G, et al: Pharmacokinetics of orally administered melatonin in critically ill patients. J Pineal Res. 48:142–147. 2010. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Nordlund JJ and Lerner AB: The effects of oral melatonin on skin color and on the release of pituitary hormones. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 45:768–774. 1977. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Biancatelli RMLC, Berrill M, Mohammed YH and Marik PE: Melatonin for the treatment of sepsis: The scientific rationale. J Thorac Dis. 12(Suppl 1): S54–S65. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar | |
Herrera EA and González-Candia A: Comment on melatonin as a potential adjuvant treatment for COVID-19. Life Sci. 253:1177392020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Moghadam SO: A review on currently available potential therapeutic options for covid-19. Int J Gen Med. 13:443–467. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar | |
Barchas J, DaCosta F and Spector S: Acute Pharmacology of melatonin. Nature. 214:919–920. 1967. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Papavasiliou PS, Cotzias GC, Duby SE, Steck AJ, Bell M and Lawrence WH: Melatonin and Parkinsonism. JAMA. 221:881972. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
Pandi-Perumal SR, Cardinali DP, Reiter RJ and Brown GM: Low melatonin as a contributor to SARS-CoV-2 disease. Melatonin Res. 3:558–576. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar | |
Öztürk G, Akbulut KG and Güney Ş: Melatonin, aging, and COVID-19: Could melatonin be beneficial for COVID-19 treatment in the elderly? Turkish J Med Sci. 50:1504–1512. 2020. View Article : Google Scholar | |
EU Clinical Trials Register: Eudract_number: 2020-001808-42. https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/trial/2020-001808-42/ES. Accessed December 5, 2020. | |
Rodríguez-Rubio M, Figueira JC, Acuña-Castroviejo D, Borobia AM, Escames G and de La Oliva P: A phase II, single-center, double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial to explore the efficacy and safety of intravenous melatonin in patients with COVID-19 admitted to the intensive care unit (MelCOVID study): A structured summary of a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 21:6992020. View Article : Google Scholar | |
EU Clinical Trials Register: Eudract_number: 2020-001530-35. https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/trial/2020-001530-35/ES. Accessed December 5, 2020. | |
ClinicalTrials.gov: Safety and Efficacy of Melatonin in Outpatients Infected With COVID-19. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04474483?term=melatonin&cond=Covid19&draw=2&rank=1. Accessed December 5, 2020. | |
ClinicalTrials.gov: Selective Estrogen Modulation and Melatonin in Early COVID-19. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04531748?term=melatonin&cond=Covid19&draw=2&rank=2. December 5, 2020. | |
ClinicalTrials.gov: Evaluation of Therapeutic Effects of Melatonin by Inhibition of NLRP3 Inflammasome in COVID19 Patients. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04409522?term=melatonin&cond=Covid19&draw=1&rank=3. Accessed December 5, 2020. | |
ClinicalTrials.gov: Efficacy of Intravenous Melatonin on Mortality in Adult Patients Admitted to the Intensive Care Unit With COVID-19. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04568863?term=melatonin&cond=Covid19&draw=1&rank=4. Accessed December 5, 2020. | |
ClinicalTrials.gov: The Effect of Melatonin and Vitamin C on COVID-19. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04530539?term=melatonin&cond=Covid19&draw=1&rank=5. Accessed December 5, 2020. | |
ClinicalTrials.gov: Melatonin Agonist on Hospitalized Patients With Confirmed or Suspected COVID-19. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04470297?term=melatonin&cond=Covid19&draw=1&rank=6. Accessed December 5, 2020. | |
ClinicalTrials.gov: Efficacy of Melatonin in the Prophylaxis of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Among Healthcare Workers. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04353128?term=melatonin&cond=Covid19&draw=1&rank=7. Accessed December 5, 2020. | |
Zhou Y, Hou Y, Shen J, Mehra R, Kallianpur A, Culver DA, Gack MU, Farha S, Zein J, Comhair S, et al: A network medicine approach to investigation and population-based validation of disease manifestations and drug repurposing for COVID-19. PLoS Biol. 18:e30009702020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
ClinicalTrials.gov: Antioxidants as Adjuvant Therapy to Standard Therapy in Patients With COVID-19. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04570254?term=melatonin&cond=Covid19&draw=1&rank=8. Accessed December 5, 2020. | |
Hassaniazad M, Bazram A, Hassanipour S and Fathalipour M: Evaluation of the efficacy and safety of favipiravir and interferon compared to lopinavir/ritonavir and interferon in moderately ill patients with COVID-19: A structured summary of a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 21:8862020. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
ClinicalTrials.gov: Search of: Melatonin|Covid19-List Results. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?recrs=&cond=Covid19&term=melatonin&cntry=&state=&city=&dist=. Accessed December 5, 2020. | |
EU Clinical Trials Register: Search for covid-19 and melatonin. https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/search?query=covid-19+and+melatonin. Accessed December 5, 2020. |