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Introduction

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are widely used as treatments for various diseases (1), including systemic lupus erythematosus, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura and nephrotic syndrome; however, GC use can lead to numerous complications, the most serious of which are osteoporosis and osteonecrosis of the femoral head (ONFH) (2). Osteoblast apoptosis is regarded as an important pathogenic mechanism underlying these two complications (3–6). Consistent with these findings, previous studies have detected a large number of TUNEL-positive osteoblasts (apoptotic cells) in the femoral head of GC-treated rats (7,8). Therefore, the development of novel treatments that inhibit osteoblast apoptosis is required.

The role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in osteoblast apoptosis has received considerable attention from researchers. Dai et al (9) revealed that H2O2 induces apoptosis in the Saos-2 osteoblastic cell line, which is attenuated by curcumin via increased protein kinase B-glycogen synthase kinase 3β signaling and preservation of mitochondrial function. Additionally, Linares et al (10) confirmed that apoptosis is induced in MC3T3-E1 cells by H2O2 and revealed that the effect is regulated by glutaredoxin 5. Li et al (11) reported that aluminum induces osteoblast apoptosis via the oxidative stress-mediated c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway. ROS serve roles in promoting apoptosis by inducing cytochrome c (Cyt C) release from the mitochondria to the cytosol (12). Furthermore, ROS have been reported to induce apoptosis of osteoblasts via activation of a protein kinase Cβ/p66shc/JNK signaling cascade (13). Intracellular Ca2+ is also involved in inducing apoptosis of various cell types (14,15); however, the role of Ca2+ in osteoblasts remains unclear. At present, only Nam et al (16) has reported that H2O2 increases intracellular Ca2+ levels in osteoblasts, subsequently inducing cell death.

Crocin (Fig. 1A) is a major bioactive component extracted from saffron, which has been reported to possess anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antiapoptotic properties (17–20). As revealed by Santhosh et al (21), crocin provides notable protection against Vipera russelli venom-induced oxidative stress and neutrophil apoptosis. Additionally, Oruc et al (22) reported that crocin exhibits antiapoptotic and antioxidant effects on ischemia-reperfusion injury induced by four-vessel occlusion. The effects of crocin on intracellular Ca2+ signaling have received limited attention, with the exception of a study by Liu et al (23), which revealed that crocin decreases the L-type Ca2+ current and inhibits Ca2+ entry into cardiomyocytes, thereby exerting cardioprotective effects. Notably, crocin has been demonstrated to protect against ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis by inhibiting oxidative stress in a rat model (24). Therefore, it has been suggested that crocin may serve a protective role in osteoblasts. This study hypothesized that crocin may suppress dexamethasone (Dex)-induced osteoblast apoptosis by inhibiting the ROS/Ca2+-mediated mitochondrial pathway.

Figure 1. Effects of Cro on the viability and apoptosis of Dex-treated MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts. (A) Molecular structure of Cro. (B) Cell viability was examined to detect the nontoxic concentrations of Cro using an MTT assay. MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts were incubated with Cro (5, 25, 100, 400, 1,000, and 4,000 µM) for 24 and 48 h, as determined by an MTT assay. (C) Viability of osteoblasts pretreated with Cro (5, 25 and 100 µM) for 1 h and then treated with 1 µM Dex for 24 and 48 h, as determined by an MTT assay. (D) Apoptosis of osteoblasts pretreated with Cro (5, 25 and 100 µM) for 1 h and then treated with 1 µM Dex for 24 h, as determined by flow cytometry using an Annexin V-FITC/PI kit. (E) Quantitative analysis of apoptotic cells. Data are presented as the means ± standard deviation of three independent experiments. **P<0.01 and ***P<0.001 vs. Ctrl; #P<0.05, ###P<0.001 vs. Dex. Cro, crocin; Ctrl, control; Dex, dexamethasone; FITC, fluorescein isothiocyanate; PI, propidium iodide.

In the present study, the effects of crocin on Dex-induced osteoblast apoptosis and its underlying mechanisms were investigated. ROS and intracellular Ca2+ levels, and the activity of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, were determined following crocin administration in Dex-treated MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts.

Materials and methods

Materials

Crocin (cat. no. 17304), MTT (cat. no. M2128), N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC, cat. no. A7250), 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N′,N′-tetraacetic acid (BAPTA-AM; cat. no. 14510), H2O2 (cat. no. 88597), ionomycin (Ion; cat. no. 407952), and dimethyl sulfoxide (cat. no. 156914) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany). The purity of crocin was determined to be 98.06% via high-performance liquid chromatography conducted by the Department of Pharmacology of Wuhan University (Wuhan, China). Dex was acquired from Shanghai Aladdin Bio-Chem Technology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China, cat. no. D137736). An Annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)/propidium iodide (PI) kit was purchased from Nanjing KeyGen Biotech Co., Ltd. (Nanjing, China; cat. no. KGA108). JC-1 Assay (cat. no. C2006), ROS Assay (cat. no. S0033), Mitochondria Isolation (cat. no. C3601), Bicinchoninic Acid (BCA; cat. no. P0010) Assay and Caspase-3 Activity Assay kits (cat. no. C1116), and phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF; cat. no. ST506) were acquired from Beyotime Institute of Biotechnology (Shanghai, China). A Fluo-3 AM kit was purchased from Dojindo Molecular Technologies, Inc. (Kumamoto, Japan; cat. no. F026). B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2; cat. no. 4223S), Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax; cat. no. 2772T), cleaved caspase-3 (cat. no. 9664T), −8 (cat. no. 8592) and −9 (cat. no. 9509) antibodies were purchased from Cell Signaling Technology, Inc. (Danvers, MA, USA). Cyt C antibody was obtained from Wuhan Sanying Biotechnology (Wuhan, China; cat. no. 10993-1-AP). GAPDH antibody was acquired from Hangzhou Goodhere Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Hangzhou, China; cat. no. AB-P-R 001). Cyt C oxidase IV (COX IV; cat. no. ab16056) antibody was purchased from Abcam (Cambridge, UK). Horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibodies were acquired from Boster Biological Technology (Pleasanton, CA, USA; cat. no. BA1054).

Cell culture

MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts were obtained from Wuhan Biofavor Biotech Services Co., Ltd. (Wuhan, China). Cells were cultured in α-minimal essential medium (Gibco; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc., Waltham, MA, USA) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (Gibco; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.), 100 U/ml penicillin and 100 µg/ml streptomycin at 37°C in an atmosphere containing 5% CO2.

Cell viability assay

Cells were cultured in 96-well plates at a density of 5×103 cells/well. Increasing concentrations of crocin (0, 5, 25, 100, 400, 1,000 and 4,000 µM) were added to the wells, and cells were incubated at 37°C for 24 or 48 h. Then, nontoxic concentrations of crocin were determined using an MTT assay and were selected for subsequent experiments. Three concentrations (5, 25 and 100 µM) were then used to investigate the protective effects of crocin against 1 µM Dex-induced cytotoxicity using an MTT assay. Cells were pretreated with 5, 25 and 100 µM crocin for 1 h, and then treated with 1 µM Dex for a further 24 or 48 h. Cells were incubated at 37°C. The MTT assay was conducted as follows: Following aforementioned treatment and incubation, MTT reagent (10 µl) was added to wells, and the plates were incubated at 37°C for 4 h. The medium was then discarded, and 150 µl dimethyl sulfoxide was added to the wells to dissolve the formazan crystals. The absorbance was detected at 568 nm using a microplate reader (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.).

Apoptosis assay

An Annexin V-FITC/PI assay was used to determine the apoptosis of osteoblasts. Cells were pretreated with 5, 25 and 100 µM crocin for 1 h, and then treated with 1 µM Dex for a further 24 h. Cells were incubated at 37°C. Following treatment, cells were washed twice with PBS, and were then incubated with 5 µl Annexin V and 5 µl PI in the dark at room temperature for 15 min. Subsequently, the cells were subjected to flow cytometry (Beckmancoulter, Brea, CA, USA), and CytExpert 2.0 software (Beckmancoulter) was used to determine the percentage of apoptotic cells. Annexin V+/PI− cells were designated as early apoptotic cells, whereas Annexin V+/PI+ cells were identified as late apoptotic cells. The total percentage of apoptotic cells was calculated by adding the percentage of early apoptotic cells to the percentage of late apoptotic cells.

Effects of increase and decrease of ROS and Ca2+

NAC, H2O2, BAPTA-AM, and Ion were added to cells to observe the effects of increases and decreases in ROS and Ca2+ on the mitochondrial transmembrane potential (Δψm), caspase-3 activity, ROS levels, Ca2+ levels and apoptotic rate of osteoblasts. Cells were pretreated with 100 µM Cro, 2 mM NAC, 20 µM BAP, 100 µM H2O2 or 0.5 µM Ion for 1 h at 37°C prior to treatment with 1 µM Dex for 24 h at 37°C. The effects of NAC and BAP on Dex-induced mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) changes, caspase-3 activation, osteoblast apoptosis, and ROS and Ca2+ levels were evaluated. The effects of H2O2 and Ion on the protective effects of Cro against Dex-induced Δψm changes, caspase-3 activation, osteoblast apoptosis, and ROS and Ca2+ levels were also evaluated.

Measurement of the Δψm

The Δψm was measured using the JC-1 Assay kit, according to the manufacturer's protocol. Briefly, following treatment, cells were incubated with JC-1 solution (500 µl) at 37°C for 20 min and were then centrifuged at 13,500 × g for 3 min at 4°C. Subsequently, the cells were washed and resuspended in 1X incubation buffer (provided in the assay kit) three times. Finally, the Δψm was determined by flow cytometry. The JC-1 polymer/monomer fluorescence ratio was used to quantify the Δψm.

ROS detection

ROS levels were determined via two methods using the ROS Assay kit: Flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy. Briefly, following treatment, cells were incubated with dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate solution (10 µM) at 37°C for 20 min. Cells were then washed three times with serum-free medium and washed twice with PBS. Finally, a flow cytometer was used to quantify the fluorescence intensity as a measure of ROS production, and data were analyzed using CytExpert 2.0 software. A fluorescence microscope (Olympus Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) and cellSens Entry 1.17 software (Olympus Corporation) was used to observe intracellular ROS fluorescence.

Intracellular Ca2+ detection

The Ca2+ dye Fluo-3 AM was used to determine intracellular Ca2+ levels. Two methods, flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy, were employed. Following treatment, cells were incubated with Fluo-3 AM solution (final concentration, 5 µM) at 37°C for 30 min. The cells were then washed twice with PBS, and the Ca2+-dependent fluorescence intensity was determined using a flow cytometer and CytExpert 2.0 software. Fluorescence images were visualized under a fluorescence microscope (Olympus Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) using cellSens Entry 1.17 software.

Caspase-3 activity assay

Caspase-3 activity in cells was determined using a Caspase-3 Activity Assay kit, according to the manufacturer's protocols. Luminescence was measured at 405 nm using a microplate reader (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.).

Western blotting

A Mitochondria Isolation kit was used to isolate mitochondria for analysis of mitochondrial Cyt C expression, according to the manufacturer's protocol. Following treatment, cells were homogenized on ice in cell lysis buffer (RIPA buffer; Beyotime Institute of Biotechnology) containing PMSF and centrifuged at 13,500 × g for 15 min at 4°C. Subsequently, protein concentrations were determined using a BCA kit. Equal quantities of total protein (50 µg/lane) were separated by SDS-PAGE (separation gel, 15%; stacking gel, 5%) and transferred to polyvinylidene fluoride membranes. Membranes were blocked with 5% non-fat dried milk in TBS-0.1% Tween-20 at room temperature for 2 h. incubated with primary antibodies against Bax (1:1,000), Bcl-2 (1:1,000), cleaved caspase-3 (1:1,000), cleaved caspase-8 (1:1,000), cleaved caspase-9 (1:1,000), Cyt C (1:1,000), COX IV (1:2,000) and GAPDH (1:1,000) overnight at 4°C. Subsequently, membranes were incubated with horseradish peroxidas-conjugated secondary antibodies (1:50,000) at 37°C for 2 h. Protein bands were visualized using enhanced chemiluminescence (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.) and the optical density of protein bands was detected using BandScan 5.0 software (Glyko, Inc.; BioMarin Pharmaceutical, Inc., Novato, CA, USA).

Statistical analysis

Data are presented as the means ± standard deviation of three independent experiments. Data were analyzed using GraphPad Prism 5.0 software (GraphPad Software, Inc., La Jolla, CA, USA). Statistical significance was evaluated by one-way analysis of variance followed by a Tukey-Kramer test for post hoc comparisons. P<0.05 was considered to indicate a statistically significant difference.

Results

Crocin protects osteoblasts against Dex-induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis

The viability of MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts following treatment with various concentrations of crocin was investigated to determine a nontoxic concentration range. As presented in Fig. 1B, crocin did not exhibit cytotoxic effects on osteoblasts at concentrations ≤400 µM. Subsequently, the protective effects of crocin against Dex-treated MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts were determined. As presented in Fig. 1C, the viability of osteoblasts at 24 h was increased from 59.9±1.6% following treatment with 1 µM Dex alone, to 65.1±6.7, 76.2±5.0 and 85.8±4.9% following treatment with Dex + 5, 25 and 100 µM crocin, respectively (P<0.05). There was no notable difference in cell viability following incubation for 24 or 48 h. Similarly, it was revealed that the percentage of apoptotic cells at 24 h was significantly decreased from 27.0±2.9% following incubation with 1 µM Dex alone, to 17.6±1.6, 11.6±1.4 and 8.97±0.9% following treatment with Dex + 5, 25 and 100 µM crocin, respectively (Fig. 1D; P<0.05).

Crocin protects osteoblasts against Dex-induced apoptosis by inhibiting the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway

The Δψm and expression of mitochondrial apoptotic pathway-associated proteins were investigated. As presented in Fig. 2A and B, Dex significantly reduced the Δψm (JC-1 polymer/monomer fluorescence ratio) compared with in the control group; however, crocin pretreatment reversed the effects of Dex in a dose-dependent manner. Additionally, Dex significantly increased the expression levels of cleaved caspase-9 and cleaved caspase-3 compared with in the control groups; these effects were significantly attenuated by crocin pretreatment. Conversely, Dex and crocin did not induce a significant effect on cleaved caspase-8 expression (Fig. 2C and D). Mitochondrial Cyt C levels were significantly decreased and Cyt C levels were significantly increased following Dex treatment compared with in the control group (Fig. 2E and F); crocin significantly reversed these effects. The relative expression levels of Bax and Bcl-2 exhibited similar alterations; Bax expression was increased and Bcl-2 expression was decreased by Dex, whereas these effects were reversed by crocin.

Figure 2. Effects of Cro on the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway in Dex-treated MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts. Cells were pretreated with Cro (5, 25 and 100 µM) for 1 h and were then treated with 1 µM Dex for 24 h. (A) Δψm of osteoblasts, as determined using a JC-1 Assay kit. (B) Quantitative analysis of the Δψm, as determined by calculating the JC-1 polymer/monomer fluorescence ratio. (C) Western blot analysis of cleaved caspase-9, cleaved caspase-8 and cleaved caspase-3 protein expression. (D) Semi-quantitative analysis of the protein expression levels of cleaved caspase-9, cleaved caspase-8 and cleaved caspase-3. (E) Western blot analysis and semi-quantitative analysis of Bcl-2 and Bax protein expression. (F) Western blot analysis and semi-quantitative analysis of Mito Cyt C protein expression. (G) Western blot analysis and semi-quantitative analysis of Cyto Cyt C protein expression. Data are presented as the means ± standard deviation of three independent experiments. ***P<0.001 vs. Ctrl; #P<0.05, ##P<0.01 and ###P<0.001 vs. Dex. Δψm, mitochondrial transmembrane potential; Bcl-2, B-cell lymphoma-2; Bax, Bcl-2-associated X protein; Cro, crocin; Ctrl, control; Cyt C, cytochrome c; COX IV, Cyt C oxidase IV; Cyto, cytosolic; Dex, dexamethasone; Mito, mitochondrial.

ROS and intracellular Ca2+ are involved in the protective effects of crocin on Dex-treated osteoblasts

The roles of ROS and intracellular Ca2+ in the protective effects of crocin on Dex-treated osteoblasts were investigated. It was demonstrated that Dex significantly increased ROS and intracellular Ca2+ levels compared with in the control group, whereas crocin pretreatment significantly inhibited these effects in a dose-dependent manner (Fig. 3).

Figure 3. Effects of Cro on ROS and intracellular Ca2+ levels in Dex-treated MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts. Cells were pretreated with Cro (5, 25 and 100 µM) for 1 h and were then treated with 1 µM Dex for 24 h. (A) ROS levels, as determined by flow cytometry. (B) Quantitative analysis of ROS. (C) Intracellular Ca2+ levels, as determined by flow cytometry. (D) Quantitative analysis of intracellular Ca2+ levels. Data are presented as the means ± standard deviation of three independent experiments. ***P<0.001 vs. Ctrl; ###P<0.001 vs. Dex. Cro, crocin; DCFH-DA, dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate; Dex, dexamethasone; ROS, reactive oxygen species.

Crocin induces antiapoptotic effects on Dex-treated osteoblasts via ROS/Ca2+ signaling

As presented in Fig. 4A-C, treatment with NAC or BAPTA-AM attenuated Dex-induced apoptosis, loss of the Δψm and activation of caspase-3 in osteoblasts. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that H2O2 and Ion attenuated the protective effects of crocin on Dex-induced apoptosis, alterations in the Δψm and caspase-3 activation (Fig. 4D-F). The results indicated that the protective effects of crocin were mediated via alterations in intracellular Ca2+ and ROS levels.

Figure 4. Effects of ROS and Ca2+ signaling on Dex- and Cro-treated MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts. Cells were pretreated with 100 µM Cro, 2 mM NAC, 20 µM BAP, 100 µM H2O2 or 0.5 µM Ion for 1 h prior to treatment with 1 µM Dex for 24 h. Effects of NAC and BAP on Dex-induced (A) Δψm loss, (B) caspase-3 activation and (C) apoptosis of osteoblasts. Effects of H2O2 and Ion on the protective effects of Cro against Dex-induced (D) loss of the Δψm, (E) caspase-3 activation and (F) apoptosis. Data are presented as the means ± standard deviation of three independent experiments. ***P<0.001 vs. control; #P<0.05, ##P<0.01 and ###P<0.001 vs. Dex; &P<0.05, &&P<0.01 and &&&P<0.001 vs. Dex + Cro. Δψm, mitochondrial transmembrane potential; BAP, 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N′,N′-tetraacetic acid; Cro, crocin; Dex, dexamethasone; Ion, ionomycin; NAC, N-acetyl-L-cysteine.

Association between ROS and intracellular Ca2+ in Dex- and crocin-treated osteoblasts

The association between ROS and intracellular Ca2+ in Dex- and crocin-treated osteoblasts was further investigated. As presented in Fig. 5A-C, NAC and BAPTA-AM significantly decreased Dex-induced ROS generation and intracellular Ca2+ accumulation compared with Dex treatment alone. Additionally, as presented in Fig. 5D-F, H2O2 and Ion treatment significantly attenuated the protective effects of crocin on Dex-induced ROS generation and intracellular Ca2+ accumulation. The results suggested that ROS and intracellular Ca2+ levels may be associated and collectively contribute to apoptosis.

Figure 5. Association between ROS and intracellular Ca2+ in Dex- and Cro-treated MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts. Cells were pretreated with 100 µM Cro, 2 mM NAC, 20 µM BAP, 100 µM H2O2 or 0.5 µM Ion for 1 h prior to treatment with 1 µM Dex for 24 h. (A) Visualization of ROS generation and intracellular Ca2+ by fluorescence microscopy (magnification, ×100). Quantitative analysis of (B) ROS production and (C) intracellular Ca2+ levels following pretreatment with NAC or BAP, and treatment with Dex, as determined via flow cytometry. (D) Visualization of ROS generation and intracellular Ca2+ by fluorescence microscopy (magnification, ×100). Quantitative analysis of (E) ROS production and (F) intracellular Ca2+ levels following pretreatment with Cro with or without H2O2 and Ion, and treatment with Dex, as determined via flow cytometry. Data are presented as the means ± standard deviation of three independent experiments. ***P<0.001 vs. Ctrl; ###P<0.001 vs. Dex; &&&P<0.001 vs. Dex + Cro. BAP, 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N′,N′-tetraacetic acid; Cro, crocin; Dex, dexamethasone; Ion, ionomycin; NAC, N-acetyl-L-cysteine; ROS, reactive oxygen species.

Discussion

Osteoblast apoptosis remains a significant cause of GC-induced osteoporosis and ONFH (25,26). Crocin has been reported to exert antioxidative and antiapoptotic effects (27,28). Cao et al (24) revealed that crocin ameliorates ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis in rats by inhibiting oxidative stress; however, it is yet to be determined whether crocin exerts protective effects against Dex-induced osteoblast apoptosis. In the present study, it was observed that crocin significantly inhibited Dex-induced osteoblast apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner, thus suggesting that crocin may be considered a potential natural treatment for GC-induced bone diseases.

Numerous studies have reported that the antiapoptotic effects of crocin protect various tissues and organs (19,29–31), whereas others have observed that its proapoptotic effects promote apoptosis in tumor cells (32–34). Therefore, crocin appears to exhibit antiapoptotic and proapoptotic properties; however, the dose ranges of crocin used in these studies may be responsible for these varied effects, as doses <500 µM tend to induce antiapoptotic effects, whereas those >500 µM induce proapoptotic effects. The present findings were similar; concentrations ≤400 µM did not exhibit toxicity, whereas those >1,000 µM significantly reduced osteoblast viability.

To identify the mechanisms underlying the antiapoptotic effects of crocin on Dex-induced apoptosis of osteoblasts, the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway was investigated. The results revealed that Dex exposure decreased the Δψm, whereas crocin treatment reversed this effect in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, Dex activated caspase-9, but did not alter caspase-8 activity, suggesting that the mitochondrial pathway, but not the death receptor-mediated pathway, contributed to Dex-induced osteoblast apoptosis. These results were consistent with the findings of Li et al (35). Furthermore, it was demonstrated that crocin treatment attenuated Dex-induced caspase-9 activation, suggesting that crocin inhibited the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. Loss of the Δψm is associated with release of Cyt C from the mitochondria to the cytosol, subsequently leading to the activation of caspase-3 and apoptosis (36). A decrease in the Bcl-2/Bax ratio can induce loss of the Δψm (37,38). Consistent with these findings, the results of the present study indicated that Cyt C translocated from the mitochondria to the cytosol following Dex treatment, and that crocin attenuated this effect. The expression levels of Bcl-2, Bax and cleaved caspase-3 in the present study also supported the hypothesis that crocin may suppress the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway in Dex-treated osteoblasts.

ROS, which are primarily generated in the mitochondria, induce loss of the Δψm and serve an important role in osteoblast apoptosis (11,39). Almeida et al (13) observed elevated ROS levels and increased apoptosis in Dex-treated UAMS-32 osteoblasts; however, these effects are inhibited by the antioxidant NAC. The present study also revealed that ROS was involved in Dex-induced osteoblast apoptosis, and that crocin attenuated ROS generation. Inhibition of ROS with NAC suppressed Dex-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, H2O2 suppressed the antiapoptotic effects of crocin on Dex-treated osteoblasts. Intracellular Ca2+ overload has also been reported to lead to loss of the Δψm and the induction of apoptosis (40,41). Pretreatment with the calcium chelator BAPTA-AM partially suppresses apoptosis (42). Similarly, it was observed in the present study that Dex increased intracellular Ca2+ concentrations, and that crocin reversed the effect. Notably, BAPTA-AM also suppressed Dex-induced apoptosis, whereas the calcium ionophore Ion reversed the antiapoptotic effects of crocin on Dex-treated osteoblasts. Zhang et al (43) reported that NAC and BAPTA-AM suppress the eicosapentaenoic acid-induced apoptosis of HepG2 cells, and suggested the involvement of the ROS-Ca2+-JNK mitochondrial pathways. Based on the present findings, it was hypothesized that crocin may induce antiapoptotic effects on Dex-induced osteoblasts by inhibiting the ROS/Ca2+-mediated mitochondrial pathway.

The results of the present study suggested that ROS and intracellular Ca2+ levels are associated in Dex-treated cells or Dex- and crocin-treated cells. Notably, treatment with H2O2 or NAC also affected intracellular Ca2+ levels, whereas treatment with Ion or BAPTA-AM also affected ROS levels. Furthermore, a number of studies have reported that ROS contributes to intracellular Ca2+ overload (16,44), and other studies have demonstrated that intracellular Ca2+ overload leads to increased ROS production (45,46). Wang et al (44) suggested that oxidative stress decreases the efficiency of ATPase, thus contributing to voltage-gated calcium ion influx and subsequently apoptosis. Lipton and Nicotera (45) suggested that cytosolic Ca2+ overload leads to depolarization of the mitochondria, subsequently contributing to the accumulation of ROS; however, the potential mechanisms are complex and requires further investigation.

In conclusion, crocin exerted protective effects against apoptosis in Dex-induced MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts. Inactivation of the ROS/Ca2+-mediated mitochondrial pathway may be involved in the inhibitory effects of crocin on osteoblast apoptosis. The present study may promote further investigation into the application of crocin as a treatment for GC-induced osteoporosis and ONFH.

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

Funding

The present study was supported by a grant from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant no. 81672154).

Availability of data and materials

All data generated and/or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Author's contributions

ZN, SD and HP designed the study. ZN, SD, LZ, QL and SC performed the experiments. ZN, SD and LZ performed data analysis. ZN drafted the manuscript. ZN, SD, LZ and HP revised the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Patient consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

References