High ambient radiofrequency radiation in Stockholm city, Sweden
- Authors:
- Published online on: December 3, 2018 https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2018.9789
- Pages: 1777-1783
-
Copyright: © Carlberg et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
Abstract
Introduction
Our research team has during the recent years made measurements of radiofrequency (RF) radiation at the Central Station (1), in the Old Town (2), and in a private apartment (3) in Stockholm, Sweden. We found high levels in certain places such as a square (Järntorget) in the Old Town with nearby base stations. Also, in the apartment high levels were measured due to the proximity to base stations. In contrast we measured low levels in parts of the WHO office in Geneva, Switzerland (4). We now report the results of measurements in Stockholm city performed in March and April 2017.
These results give an estimate of RF radiation levels before the introduction of the fifth generation, 5G, for wireless communication. During the time for all these measurements no 5G was implemented. Despite an EU appeal by more than 200 scientists and medical doctors asking for a moratorium on the introduction of 5G until further independent research on consequences on health and environment are performed, there seems to be no plans to halt the building of that network (5). In addition, the animal studies by the National Toxicology Program (NTP) in USA (6–8) and the Ramazzini Institute in Italy (9) have recently provided additional evidence on the carcinogenicity of RF radiation.
Apart from the cancer risk from exposure to RF radiation, several studies show other possible adverse health effects in inhabitants living near mobile base station. Symptoms like headache, fatigue, dizziness, sleep disturbances, cardiovascular symptoms, depression and difficulties with concentration and memory have been reported (10–15). A study in Rimbach, Germany, showed adverse effects on the neurotransmitters adrenalin, noradrenalin, dopamin and phenyletylamine after a GSM mobile base station was activated 2004 (16). Hormone profiles were measured in volunteers living near a mobile base station. Serum cortisol, plasma ACTH and thyroid hormones decreased statistically significantly. Prolactin in young women and testosterone in men also decreased during the study time of up to six years (17). Two different studies from India showed that persons who lived near mobile phone base stations had higher frequency of micronuclei, lowered antioxidant levels and induced DNA damage in their blood lymphocytes (18,19). Also lowered levels of stimulated salivary secretion and more health complaints have been seen (15) and an increase of salivary cortisol after exposure to RF radiation from mobile phone base stations has been reported (20).
A biological mechanism for exposure to RF radiation and possible harmful effects can be the stimulation of oxidative stress. A study showed lower values of antioxidant levels and a higher mean level of lipid peroxidation assay as a sign for increased free radicals in a study population living near mobile phone base stations (21). Free radicals may play an important role in many diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular, immunological and endocrine diseases (21). A spatial correlation between mortality in cancer and distance to a mobile phone base station was found in a study in Brazil (22). Also in a review, 2 of 3 studies showed augmented cancer incidence for people living near mobile base stations (23).
This study forms part of our on-going measurements of RF radiation in public places. Of special interest is places with many visitors but also including areas with persons working for several hours per day. This was a measurement study with no involvement of test persons. Thus, no ethical permission was needed.
Materials and methods
EME Spy 200 Exposimeter
In this study an EME Spy 200 exposimeter with a valid calibration was used to collect the exposure data. Axial isotropy is from ± 1 to ± 2.8 dB depending on the frequency band. The measurement accuracy is very good relative to this type of measurements and the measurement errors are not biologically significant. The exposimeter measures 20 predefined frequency bands as presented in Table I. They cover the frequencies of most public RF radiation emitting devices currently used in Sweden. The exposimeter covers frequencies from 88 to 5,850 MHz. For FM, TV3, TETRA, TV4&5, Wi-Fi 2G and Wi-Fi 5G the lower detection limit is 0.01 V/m (0.27 µW/m2); for all other bands the lower detection limit is 0.005 V/m (0.066 µW/m2). For all bands the upper detection limit is 6 V/m (95,544 µW/m2; 9.5544 µW/cm2). The sampling time used in this study was every fourth second which is the fastest for the given exposimeter.
The exposimeter measures different telecommunications protocols: FM (frequency modulation) radio broadcasting; TV (television) broadcasting; TETRA emergency services (police, rescue, etc.); GSM (global system for mobile communications) second generation mobile communications; UMTS (universal mobile telecommunications systems) third generation mobile communications, 3G; LTE (long term evolution) fourth generation mobile communications standard, 4G; DECT (digital European cordless telecommunications) cordless telephone systems standard; Wi-Fi wireless local area network protocol; WIMAX (worldwide interoperability for microwave access) wireless communication standard for high speed voice, data and Internet.
EME SPY 200 utilizes 3-axis antennas to capture RF radiation from all possible directions and polarizations. The exposimeter was held at some distance (approximately 0.4 meters) from the body. The unit reports the exposure in a conservative manner since each reported value is the sampling outcome, where many samples are taken and statistically processed including minimum, mean, median and maximum values.
Study design
All measurements were performed during March and April 2017. Each measurement tour started at Stureplan, Stockholm that is a common place for visitors, see Fig. 1. It always followed the same route via Norrmalmstorg plaza to Sergel Plaza. From there streets passing the Central Railway station and Rosenbad, the administrative center for the Government, and further via the main street Drottninggatan ending at the Hay Market, a place for outdoor shopping, were used. Finally, Kungsgatan was measured ending at Stureplan again. The measurement rounds were conducted on a steady pace, keeping a constant speed. In order to spatially represent the mean RF exposure levels, the squares were covered by spiral movement pattern, covering the space by evenly distributed layout. The measurement rounds covered the major public hotspots, hence we consider the route to be representative of a public exposure in this city. In total measurements were made during five different days.
Statistical methods
Means in µW/m2 were calculated for all measured frequency bands and a box plot was constructed to illustrate the distribution of total exposure for all measurement locations. Values at lower detection limit were treated as no (0) exposure. Total exposure was calculated as the sum of all measured frequency bands. Stata/SE 12.1 (Stata/SE 12.1 for Windows; StataCorp., College Station, TX, USA) was used for all calculations.
Results
Total round
The results were based on 11,482 entries in total corresponding to more than 12 h of measurements, see Table II. The total mean level was 5,494 µW/m2 (median 3,346, range 36.6–205,155). The major contributions were from down links (DL) from LTE 800 (4G), GSM + UMTS 900 (3G), GSM 1800 (2G), UMTS 2100 (3G), and LTE 2600 (4G), see Table II. If all down links were excluded from the measurements the mean level dropped to 118 µW/m2 (median 36.0, range 0–9,157).
 | Table II.Stockholm city levels of radiofrequency radiation based on 11,482 entries, measurements 20170305–20170307, 20170413 and 20170416. Analysis of all data (µW/m2) treating values at detection limit as 0. |
The Hay Market
As shown in Table III and Fig. 2 the highest RF-radiation was measured at the Hay Market with mean level 10,728 µW/m2 and median 8,578 µW/m2. These results were based on 1,202 entries, see Table IV. LTE 2600 DL showed the highest mean level, 3,697 µW/m2. There was a large variability in signal strength during the measurements ranging from 335 to 68,815 µW/m2 with high mean and average values, see Fig. 3.
| Table III.Stockholm city total levels of radiofrequency radiation for different locations, measurements 20170305-20170307, 20170413 and 20170416. Analysis of all data (µW/m2) treating values at detection limit as 0. |
| Table IV.Hay Market, Stockholm, levels of radiofrequency radiation in total based on 1,202 entries. Analysis of all data (µW/m2) treating values at detection limit as 0. |
The Sergel Plaza
Also the Sergel Plaza had a high mean level, 7,768 µW/m2 (median 6,466, range 66.6–50,897), Table III and Fig. 2. Table V shows the contribution of different frequencies. Also here LTE 2600 DL (4G) gave the highest level.
| Table V.Sergel Plaza, Stockholm, levels of radiofrequency radiation in total based on 1,651 entries. Analysis of all data (µW/m2) treating values at detection limit as 0. |
Discussion
As shown in Fig. 1 the same pathway was used each time. The 11,482 recordings corresponded to more than 12 h of measurements. The total mean level was 5,494 µW/m2 (median 3,346, range 36.6–205,155). These results may be compared with our previous measurements.
We made our first measurements with the EME Spy 200 Exposimeter at the Stockholm Central Station in November 2015 (1). The results were based on 1,669 entries and yielded mean total RF radiation level 3,860 µW/m2 (median 921, range 5.8–155,263).
The next measurement included Stockholm Old Town in April 2016 (2). The results were based on 10,437 samples in total. The mean level of total RF-radiation was 4,293 µW/m2 (median 534, range 0–173,302).
We measured levels of RF-radiation in an apartment located at Östermalm, Stockholm. The results were based on 74,531 entries for 6 different tours in June and August 2017. Also, balconies were measured (3). The study was initiated by concern of RF radiation from nearby base stations on the top of roofs. The mean RF radiation level was 3,811 µW/m2 (median 1,313, range 15.2–112,318). Highest RF radiation level was obtained at a balcony outside the living room with mean value 24,886 µW/m2 (median 22,256, range 72.0–112,318). As we discussed in the article these levels of RF radiation are not compatible with long-time living in the apartment, especially not for children.
The aim of this article is not to discuss in more detail results from measurements of RF radiation levels in other countries. For a more comprehensive review see our previous publications (1–4). In these publications we discuss also health risks and other biological effects from RF radiation. The levels in the present study are among the highest that we have measured in Stockholm so far. Obviously, they exceed the scientific benchmark on 30–60 µW/m2 for potential health risks based on non-thermal effects as published in the BioInitiative Report (24). Based on chronic exposure an even lower level, 3–6 µW/m2, with safety factor 10 was suggested for sensitive groups including children.
In contrast, the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) based their target level on short-term (acute) exposure. It was established in 1998 (25) and updated in 2009 (26) without any change of the guideline 2 to 10 W/m2 (2,000,000 to 10,000,000 µW/m2) depending of frequency. Despite being outdated, considering only thermal effects, and not based on current knowledge, the ICNIRP guideline is used in many countries such as by the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority (SSM).
Most areas in our current study are only used by people when passing by. Thus, the high involuntary exposure is for a short time. However, some of the streets are popular for visitors, those going for shopping or strolling along the street just for pleasure. This might give more extended exposure. One contrast is the Hay Market. This is popular place for marketing of flowers, fruits, berries, etc. Thus, the dealers may during the whole day be exposed to high RF radiation. The mean level was 10,728 µW/m2 which exceeds very much levels known to have biological effects.
The results of this study point out unnecessarily high RF radiation areas in several parts of Stockholm city. Using high-power levels causes an excess health risk to many people. Even higher RF radiation is expected when 5 G is implemented.
5G will use several different frequencies. According to The Swedish ‘Post and Telestyrelsen’ (The Swedish Post and Telecom Authority, PTS) the plan for 5G in Sweden is in the bands of 700 MHZ, 3.4–3.6 GHz and 26.5–27.5 GHz. These frequency have wavelengths of 428.6 mm, 88.2–83.3 mm and 11.3–10.9 mm, respectively. Super high frequencies, like 26.5–27.5 GHz have wavelengths in the millimeter scale, and are named millimeter waves (MMW). Millimeter waves have low penetration depth into the body. Primarily skin and ocular effects have been seen. MMW may have effects on nerve endings and capillaries in the skin and through them influence deeper structures and functions in the body (27,28). Sweat ducts in the skin may act as helical antennas and respond to MMW for penetration (29,30). MMW can also have effects on bacterial growth and augmented antibiotic resistance (31), which can lead to difficulties to treat severe infections.
RF radiation from mobile phone base station expose the environment day and night. Long duration of exposure to RF radiation can be an important factor in adverse health effects even with exposure at lower power densities (32,33). There can also be a significant difference in sensibility to RF radiation between individuals (34). It seems that RF radiation from mobile phone base stations, mobile phones, wireless networks, smart meters and all other wireless devices can have adverse health effects and lead to neurobehavioral, hormonal and immunological effects and cancer (35).
The introduction of 5G will augment the total exposure and also the total amount of different frequencies that will expose the population. The total incidence of cancer is increasing in Sweden and daily papers often report about sleep disturbances, pain problems, burned-out syndromes, depression and more people on sick-leaves. There can be several different causes for this increase in ill health, but the population has never before been exposed to this amount of RF radiation. It does not seem to halt even with these levels of exposure since mobile phone industries and governments want to progress toward an even more digital and wireless world. More research is urgently needed to evaluate the exposure levels we already have and their possible medical consequences and the exposure levels we will get when 5G is implemented, see e.g. the 5G Appeal (5).
Acknowledgements
Not applicable.
Funding
The present study was supported by grants from Mr. Brian Stein, Cancer-och Allergifonden, Cancerhjälpen and the Pandora-Foundation for Independent Research, Berlin, Germany.
Availability of data and materials
The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Authors' contributions
LHa and TK collected all the measurements. MC performed the statistical calculations, LHe contributed with the review of medical aspects from mobile phone base station studies and TK was responsible for technical and methodological aspects of the study. All authors participated in the writing of the manuscript, and have read and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Patient consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
References
|
Hardell L, Koppel T, Carlberg M, Ahonen M and Hedendahl L: Radiofrequency radiation at Stockholm Central Railway Station in Sweden and some medical aspects on public exposure to RF fields. Int J Oncol. 49:1315–1324. 2016. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Hardell L, Carlberg M, Koppel T and Hedendahl L: High radiofrequency radiation at Stockholm Old Town: An exposimeter study including the Royal Castle, Supreme Court, three major squares and the Swedish Parliament. Mol Clin Oncol. 6:462–476. 2017. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Hardell L, Carlberg M and Hedendahl LK: Radiofrequency radiation from nearby base stations gives high levels in an apartment in Stockholm, Sweden: A case report. Oncol Lett. 15:7871–7883. 2018.PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Hardell L: World Health Organization, radiofrequency radiation and health-a hard nut to crack (Review). Int J Oncol. 51:405–413. 2017. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
The 5G appeal: Scientists and doctors warn of potential serious health effects of 5G. http://www.5gappeal.eu/scientists-and-doctors-warn-of-potential-serious-health-effects-of-5g/July 4–2018 | |
|
Wyde M, Cesta M, Blystone C, Bucher J, Elmore S, Foster P, Hooth M, Kissling G, Malarkey D, Sills R, et al: Report of partial findings from the National Toxicology Program Carcinogenesis Studies of Cell Phone Radiofrequency Radiation in Hsd: Sprague Dawley® SD rats (Whole Body Exposures). http://biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2016/05/26/055699.full.pdfJuly 11–2018 | |
|
National Toxicology Program: NTP technical report on the toxicology and carcinogenesis studies in Hsd:Sprague Dawley sd rats exposed to whole-body radio frequency radiation at a frequency (900 MHz) and modulations (GSM and CDMA) used by cell phones. NTP TR 595. March 26-28–2018, https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/about_ntp/trpanel/2018/march/tr595peerdraft.pdfJuly 11–2018 | |
|
National Toxicology Program: NTP technical report on the toxicology and carcinogenesis studies in B6C3F1/N mice exposed to whole-body radio frequency radiation at a frequency (1,900 MHz) and modulations (GSM and CDMA) used by cell phones. NTP TR. 596:March 26-28–2018. https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/about_ntp/trpanel/2018/march/tr596peerdraft.pdfJuly 11–2018 | |
|
Falcioni L, Bua L, Tibaldi E, Lauriola M, De Angelis L, Gnudi F, Mandrioli D, Manservigi M, Manservisi F, Manzoli I, et al: Report of final results regarding brain and heart tumors in Sprague-Dawley rats exposed from prenatal life until natural death to mobile phone radiofrequency field representative of a 1.8 GHz GSM base station environmental emission. Environ Res. 165:496–503. 2018. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Santini R, Santini P, Le Ruz P, Danze JM and Seigne M: Survey study of people living in the vicinity of cellular phone base stations. Electromag Biol Med. 22:41–49. 2003. View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Abdel-Rassoul G, El-Fateh OA, Salem MA, Michael A, Farahat F, El-Batanouny M and Salem E: Neurobehavioral effects among inhabitants around mobile phone base stations. Neurotoxicology. 28:434–440. 2007. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Gómez-Perretta C, Navarro EA, Segura J and Portolés M: Subjective symptoms related to GSM radiation from mobile phone base stations: A cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 3:e0038362013. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Hutter HP, Moshammer H, Wallner P and Kundi M: Subjective symptoms, sleeping problems, and cognitive performance in subjects living near mobile phone base stations. Occup Environ Med. 63:307–313. 2006. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Baliatsas C, Van Kamp I, Lebret E and Rubin GJ: Idiopathic environmental intolerance attributed to electromagnetic fields (IEI-EMF): A systematic review of identifying criteria. BMC Public Health. 12:6432012. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Singh K, Nagaraj A, Yousuf A, Ganta S, Pareek S and Vishnani P: Effect of electromagnetic radiations from mobile phone base stations on general health and salivary function. J Int Soc Prev Community Dent. 6:54–59. 2016. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Buchner K and Eger H: Changes of clinically important neurotransmitters under the influence of modulated RF-fields-a long term study under real-life conditions. Umwelt Medizin-Gesellschaft. 24:44–57. 2011. | |
|
Eskander EF, Estefan SF and Abd-Rabou AA: How does long term exposure to base stations and mobile phones affect human hormone profiles? Clin Biochem. 45:157–161. 2012. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Gandhi G, Kaur G and Nisar U: A cross-sectional case control study on genetic damage in individuals residing in the vicinity of a mobile phone base station. Electromagn Biol Med. 34:344–354. 2015. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Zothansiama, Zosangzuali M, Lalramdinpuii M and Jagetia GC: Impact of radiofrequency radiation on DNA damage and antioxidants in peripheral blood lymphocytes of humans residing in the vicinity of mobile phone base stations. Electromagn Biol Med. 36:295–305. 2017. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Augner C, Hacker GW, Oberfeld G, Florian M, Hitzl W, Hutter J and Pauser G: Effects of exposure to GSM mobile phone base station signals on salivary cortisol, alpha-amylase, and immunoglobulin A. Biomed Environ Sci. 23:199–207. 2010. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Gulati S, Yadav A, Kumar N, Priya K, Aggarwal NK and Gupta R: Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of antioxidant enzyme system in human population exposed to radiation from mobile towers. Mol Cell Biochem. 440:1–9. 2018. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Dode AC, Leão MM, Tejo Fde A, Gomes AC, Dode DC, Dode MC, Moreira CW, Condessa VA, Albinatti C and Caiaffa WT: Mortality by neoplasia and cellular telephone base stations in the Belo Horizonte municipality, Minas Gerais state, Brazil. Sci Total Environ. 409:3649–3665. 2011. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Khurana VG, Hardell L, Everaert J, Bortkiewicz A, Carlberg M and Ahonen M: Epidemiological evidence for a health risk from mobile phone base stations. Int J Occup Environ Health. 16:263–267. 2010. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
BioInitiative 2012. A Rationale for Biologically-based Exposure Standards for Low-Intensity Electromagnetic Radiation. Sage C and Carpenter DO: Bioinitiative. 2012, http://www.bioinitiative.org/table-of-contents/July 11–2018 | |
|
Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields (up to 300 GHz). International commission on non-ionizing radiation protection. Health Phys. 74:494–522. 1998.PubMed/NCBI | |
|
International commission on non-ionizing radiation protection: ICNIRP statement on the ‘Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields (up to 300 GHz)’. Health Phys. 97:257–258. 2009. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Le Drean Y, Mahamoud YS, Le Page Y, Habauzit D, Le Quement C, Zhadobov M and Sauleau R: State of knowledge on biological effects at 40–60 GHz. C R Physique. 14:402–411. 2013. View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Russell CL: 5 G wireless telecommunications expansion: Public health and environmental implications. Environ Res. 165:484–495. 2018. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Feldman Y, Puzenko A, Ben Ishai P, Caduff A and Agranat AJ: Human skin as arrays of helical antennas in the millimeter and submillimeter wave range. Phys Rev Lett. 100:1281022008. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Betzalel N, Ben Ishai P and Feldman Y: The human skin as a sub-THz receiver-Does 5G pose a danger to it or not? Environ Res. 163:208–216. 2018. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Soghomoyan D, Trchounian K and Trchounian A: Millimeter waves or extremely high frequency electromagnetic fields in the environment: What are their effects on bacteria? Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 100:4761–4771. 2016. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Cucurachi S, Tamis WL, Vijver MG, Peijnenburg WJ, Bolte JF and de Snoo GR: A review of the ecological effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF). Environ Int. 51:116–140. 2013. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Belyaev I: Duration of exposure and dose in assessing nonthermal biological effects of microwaves. Dosimetry in Bioelectromagnetics. Markov M: CRC Press; Boca Raton, Florida: 9. 2017, View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Hedendahl L, Carlberg M and Hardell L: Electromagnetic hypersensitivity-an increasing challenge to the medical profession. Rev Environ Health. 30:209–215. 2015. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI | |
|
Belpomme D, Hardell L, Belyaev I, Burgio E and Carpenter DO: Thermal and non-thermal health effects of non-ionizing radiation: An international perspective. Environ Pollut. 242:643–658. 2018. View Article : Google Scholar : PubMed/NCBI |
