Links between trauma and psychosis (Review)
- Authors:
- Ioanna Giannopoulou
- Stelios Georgiades
- Maria-Ioanna Stefanou
- Demetrios A. Spandidos
- Emmanouil Rizos
-
Affiliations: Second Department of Psychiatry, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece, Department of Basic Clinical Sciences, Medical School, University of Nicosia, 2415 Nicosia, Cyprus, Second Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece, Laboratory of Clinical Virology, Medical School, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece - Published online on: June 28, 2023 https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2023.12085
- Article Number: 386
-
Copyright: © Giannopoulou et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License.
This article is mentioned in:
Abstract
 |
|
Jablensky A: The diagnostic concept of schizophrenia: Its history, evolution, and future prospects. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 12:271–287. 2010.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Grubaugh AL, Zinzow HM, Paul L, Egede LE and Frueh BC: Trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in adults with severe mental illness: A critical review. Clin Psychol Rev. 31:883–899. 2011.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Bloomfield MAP, Chang T, Woodl MJ, Lyons LM, Cheng Z, Bauer-Staeb C, Hobbs C, Bracke S, Kennerley H, Isham L, et al: Psychological processes mediating the association between developmental trauma and specific psychotic symptoms in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. World Psychiatry. 20:107–123. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Varese F, Smeets F, Drukker M, Lieverse R, Lataster T, Viechtbauer W, Read J, van Os J and Bentall RP: Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: a meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective- and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophr Bull. 38:661–671. 2012.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Heins M, Simons C, Lataster T, Pfeifer S, Versmissen D, Lardinois M, Marcelis M, Delespaul P, Krabbendam L, van Os J and Myin-Germeys I: Childhood trauma and psychosis: A case-control and case-sibling comparison across different levels of genetic liability, psychopathology, and type of trauma. Am J Psychiatry. 168:1286–1294. 2011.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Morrison AP, Frame L and Larkin W: Relationships between trauma and psychosis: A review and integration. Br J Clin Psychol. 42(Pt 4):331–353. 2003.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Spauwen J, Krabbendam L, Lieb R, Wittchen HU and van Os J: Impact of psychological trauma on the development of psychotic symptoms: Relationship with psychosis proneness. Br J Psychiatry. 188:527–533. 2006.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Meade CS, Kershaw TS, Hansen NB and Sikkema KJ: Long-term correlates of childhood abuse among adults with severe mental illness: Adult victimization, substance abuse, and HIV sexual risk behavior. AIDS Behav. 13:207–216. 2009.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Ierodiakonou C: The Psychology of Aristotle, The Philosopher: A Psychoanalytic Therapist's Perspective. Routledge, London, 2019. | |
|
Cicero: The Nature of the Gods. 1st edition. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008. | |
|
Oppenheim H: Wie sind diejenigen Fälle von Neurasthenie aufzufassen, welche sich nach Erschütterung des Rückenmarks insbesondere nach Eisenbahnunfällen entwickeln. Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift. 14:194–196. 1888. | |
|
Van Der Kolk PA and Van Der Hart : The intrusisve PastQ The Flexibility of Memory and Engraving of Trauma. American Imago. 48:425–454. 1991. | |
|
Strachey J: Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud Volume II (1893-1895): Studies on Hysteria. Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis, London, 1955. | |
|
Sletvold J: Freud's three theories of neurosis: Towards a contemporary theory of trauma and defense. Psychoanalytic Dialogues. 26:460–475. 2016. | |
|
American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5-TR). 5th edition. American Psychiatric Publishing Inc., Washinghton, 2013. | |
|
Centers of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): Violence Prevention: Injury Center: About the CDC-Kaiser ACE Study. United States Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, 2022. | |
|
Felitti VJ, Anda RF, Nordenberg D, Williamson DF, Spitz AM, Edwards V, Koss MP and Marks JS: Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. Am J Prev Med. 14:245–258. 1998.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Croft J, Heron J, Teufel C, Cannon M, Wolke D, Thompson A, Houtepen L and Zammit S: Association of trauma type, age of exposure, and frequency in childhood and adolescence with psychotic experiences in early adulthood. JAMA Psychiatry. 76:79–86. 2019.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Loewy RL, Corey S, Amirfathi F, Dabit S, Fulford D, Pearson R, Hua JPY, Schlosser D, Stuart BK, Mathalon DH and Vinogradov S: Childhood trauma and clinical high risk for psychosis. Schizophr Res. 205:10–14. 2019.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Poulton R, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Cannon M, Murray R and Harrington H: Children's self-reported psychotic symptoms and adult schizophreniform disorder: A 15-year longitudinal study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 57:1053–1058. 2000.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Dohrenwend BP: Inventorying stressful life events as risk factors for psychopathology: Toward resolution of the problem of intracategory variability. Psychol Bull. 132:477–495. 2006.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Rössler W, Ajdacic-Gross V, Rodgers S, Haker H and Müller M: Childhood trauma as a risk factor for the onset of subclinical psychotic experiences: Exploring the mediating effect of stress sensitivity in a cross-sectional epidemiological community study. Schizophr Res. 172:46–53. 2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Kraan T, Velthorst E, Smit F, de Haan L and van der Gaag M: Trauma and recent life events in individuals at ultra high risk for psychosis: Review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Res. 161:143–149. 2015.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Kline E, Millman ZB, Denenny D, Wilson C, Thompson E, Demro C, Connors K, Bussell K, Reeves G and Schiffman J: Trauma and psychosis symptoms in a sample of help-seeking youth. Schizophr Res. 175:174–179. 2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
de Bont PA, van den Berg DP, van der Vleugel BM, de Roos C, de Jongh A, van der Gaag M and van Minnen A: Predictive validity of the Trauma Screening Questionnaire in detecting post-traumatic stress disorder in patients with psychotic disorders. Br J Psychiatry. 206:408–416. 2015.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Liu Y, Mendonça M, Cannon M, Jones PB, Lewis G, Thompson A, Zammit S and Wolke D: Testing the independent and joint contribution of exposure to neurodevelopmental adversity and childhood trauma to risk of psychotic experiences in adulthood. Schizophr Bull. 47:776–784. 2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Stowkowy J, Liu L, Cadenhead KS, Cannon TD, Cornblatt BA, McGlashan TH, Perkins DO, Seidman LJ, Tsuang MT, Walker EF, et al: Early traumatic experiences, perceived discrimination and conversion to psychosis in those at clinical high risk for psychosis. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 51:497–503. 2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Moriyama TS, Drukker M, Gadelha A, Pan PM, Salum GA, Manfro GG, Mari JJ, Miguel EC, Rohde LA, Polanczyk GV, et al: The association between psychotic experiences and traumatic life events: The role of the intention to harm. Psychol Med. 48:2235–2246. 2018.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
McGrath JJ, McLaughlin KA, Saha S, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Al-Hamzawi A, Alonso J, Bruffaerts R, de Girolamo G, de Jonge P, Esan O, et al: The association between childhood adversities and subsequent first onset of psychotic experiences: A cross-national analysis of 23 998 respondents from 17 countries. Psychol Med. 47:1230–1245. 2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Strauss GP, Raugh IM, Mittal VA, Gibb BE and Coles ME: Bullying victimization and perpetration in a community sample of youth with psychotic like experiences. Schizophr Res. 195:534–536. 2018.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Kelleher I, Harley M, Lynch F, Arseneault L, Fitzpatrick C and Cannon M: Associations between childhood trauma, bullying and psychotic symptoms among a school-based adolescent sample. Br J Psychiatry. 193:378–382. 2008.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Arseneault L, Cannon M, Fisher HL, Polanczyk G, Moffitt TE and Caspi A: Childhood trauma and children's emerging psychotic symptoms: A genetically sensitive longitudinal cohort study. Am J Psychiatry. 168:65–72. 2011.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Whitfield CL, Dube SR, Felitti VJ and Anda RF: Adverse childhood experiences and hallucinations. Child Abuse Negl. 29:797–810. 2005.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Read J, van Os J, Morrison AP and Ross CA: Childhood trauma, psychosis and schizophrenia: A literature review with theoretical and clinical implications. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 112:330–350. 2005.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Hardy A, Fowler D, Freeman D, Smith B, Steel C, Evans J, Garety P, Kuipers E, Bebbington P and Dunn G: Trauma and hallucinatory experience in psychosis. J Nerv Ment Dis. 193:501–507. 2005.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Janssen I, Krabbendam L, Bak M, Hanssen M, Vollebergh W, de Graaf R and van Os J: Childhood abuse as a risk factor for psychotic experiences. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 109:38–45. 2004.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Bentall RP, Wickham S, Shevlin M and Varese F: Do specific early-life adversities lead to specific symptoms of psychosis? A study from the 2007 the adult psychiatric morbidity survey. Schizophr Bull. 38:734–740. 2012.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Read J and Argyle N: Hallucinations, delusions, and thought disorder among adult psychiatric inpatients with a history of child abuse. Psychiatr Serv. 50:1467–1472. 1999.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
van Nierop M, Lataster T, Smeets F, Gunther N, van Zelst C, de Graaf R, ten Have M, van Dorsselaer S, Bak M, Myin-Germeys I, et al: Psychopathological mechanisms linking childhood traumatic experiences to risk of psychotic symptoms: Analysis of a large, representative population-based sample. Schizophr Bull. 40 (Suppl 2):S123–S130. 2014.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Ered A and Ellman LM: Specificity of childhood trauma type and attenuated positive symptoms in a non-clinical sample. J Clin Med. 8(1537)2019.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Velthorst E, Nelson B, O'Connor K, Mossaheb N, de Haan L, Bruxner A, Simmons MB, Yung AR and Thompson A: History of trauma and the association with baseline symptoms in an ultra-high risk for psychosis cohort. Psychiatry Res. 210:75–81. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Read J, Perry B, Moskowitz A and Connolly J: The contribution of early traumatic events to schizophrenia in some patients: A traumagenic neurodevelopmental model. Psychiatry. 64:319–345. 2001.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Charmandari E, Kino T, Souvatzoglou E and Chrousos GP: Pediatric stress: Hormonal mediators and human development. Horm Res. 59:161–179. 2003.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Lardinois M, Lataster T, Mengelers R, Van Os J and Myin-Germeys I: Childhood trauma and increased stress sensitivity in psychosis. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 123:28–35. 2011.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Lupien SJ, McEwen BS, Gunnar MR and Heim C: Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nat Rev Neurosci. 10:434–445. 2009.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Myin-Germeys I and van Os J: Stress-reactivity in psychosis: Evidence for an affective pathway to psychosis. Clin Psychol Rev. 27:409–424. 2007.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Walker E, Mittal V and Tessner K: Stress and the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis in the developmental course of schizophrenia. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 4:189–216. 2008.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Morgan C, Charalambides M, Hutchinson G and Murray RM: Migration, ethnicity, and psychosis: Toward a sociodevelopmental model. Schizophr Bull. 36:655–664. 2010.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Davis EG, Humphreys KL, McEwen LM, Sacchet MD, Camacho MC, MacIsaac JL, Lin DTS, Kobor MS and Gotlib IH: Accelerated DNA methylation age in adolescent girls: Associations with elevated diurnal cortisol and reduced hippocampal volume. Transl Psychiatry. 7(e1223)2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Chen Q, Li D, Jin W, Shi Y, Li Z, Ma P, Sun J, Chen S, Li P and Lin P: Research progress on the correlation between epigenetics and schizophrenia. Front Neurosci. 15(688727)2021.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Alameda L, Rodriguez V, Carr E, Aas M, Trotta G, Marino P, Vorontsova N, Herane-Vives A, Gadelrab R, Spinazzola E, et al: A systematic review on mediators between adversity and psychosis: Potential targets for treatment. Psychol Med. 50:1966–1976. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Bayer TA, Falkai P and Maier W: Genetic and non-genetic vulnerability factors in schizophrenia: The basis of the ‘two hit hypothesis.’. J Psychiatr Res. 33:543–548. 1999.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Maynard TM, Sikich L, Lieberman JA and LaMantia AS: Neural development, cell-cell signaling, and the ‘two-hit’ hypothesis of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull. 27:457–476. 2001.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Morgan C, Gayer-Anderson C, Beards S, Hubbard K, Mondelli V, Di Forti M, Murray RM, Pariante C, Dazzan P, Craig TJ, et al: Threat, hostility and violence in childhood and later psychotic disorder: population-based case-control study. Br J Psychiatry. 217:575–582. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Selten JP and Cantor-Graae E: Social defeat: Risk factor for schizophrenia? Br J Psychiatry. 187:101–102. 2005.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
van Dam DS, van der Ven E, Velthorst E, Selten JP, Morgan C and de Haan L: Childhood bullying and the association with psychosis in non-clinical and clinical samples: A review and meta-analysis. Psychol Med. 42:2463–2474. 2012.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Boyd A, Golding J, Macleod J, Lawlor DA, Fraser A, Henderson J, Molloy L, Ness A, Ring S and Davey Smith G: Cohort Profile: The ’children of the 90s’-the index offspring of the Avon longitudinal study of parents and children. Int J Epidemiol. 42:111–127. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Egerton A, Valmaggia LR, Howes OD, Day F, Chaddock CA, Allen P, Winton-Brown TT, Bloomfield MAP, Bhattacharyya S, Chilcott J, et al: Adversity in childhood linked to elevated striatal dopamine function in adulthood. Schizophr Res. 176:171–176. 2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Averill LA, Purohit P, Averill CL, Boesl MA, Krystal JH and Abdallah CG: Glutamate dysregulation and glutamatergic therapeutics for PTSD: Evidence from human studies. Neurosci Lett. 649:147–155. 2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Collip D, Myin-Germeys I and Van Os J: Does the concept of ‘sensitization’ provide a plausible mechanism for the putative link between the environment and schizophrenia? Schizophr Bull. 34:220–225. 2008.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
McCutcheon RA, Krystal JH and Howes OD: Dopamine and glutamate in schizophrenia: Biology, symptoms and treatment. World Psychiatry. 19:15–33. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Pruessner JC, Champagne F, Meaney MJ and Dagher A: Dopamine release in response to a psychological stress in humans and its relationship to early life maternal care: A positron emission tomography study using [11C]Raclopride. J Neurosci. 24:2825–2831. 2004.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Miller GE, Chen E and Zhou ES: If it goes up, must it come down? Chronic stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in humans. Psychol Bull. 133:25–45. 2007.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Cisler JM: Childhood trauma and functional connectivity between amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex: A dynamic functional connectivity and large-scale network perspective. Front Syst Neurosci. 11(29)2017.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Walker EF, Brennan PA, Esterberg M, Brasfield J, Pearce B and Compton MT: Longitudinal changes in cortisol secretion and conversion to psychosis in at-risk youth. J Abnorm Psychol. 119:401–408. 2010.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Walker EF, Trotman HD, Pearce BD, Addington J, Cadenhead KS, Cornblatt BA, Heinssen R, Mathalon DH, Perkins DO, Seidman LJ, et al: Cortisol levels and risk for psychosis: Initial findings from the North American prodrome longitudinal study. Biol Psychiatry. 74:410–417. 2013.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Sapolsky RM: Glucocorticoids and hippocampal atrophy in neuropsychiatric disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 57:925–935. 2000.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Vita A, De Peri L, Silenzi C and Dieci M: Brain morphology in first-episode schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of quantitative magnetic resonance imaging studies. Schizophr Res. 82:75–88. 2006.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Ray MT, Weickert CS, Wyatt E and Webster MJ: Decreased BDNF, trkB-TK+ and GAD67 mRNA expression in the hippocampus of individuals with schizophrenia and mood disorders. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 36:195–203. 2011.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Daskalakis NP, De Kloet ER, Yehuda R, Malaspina D and Kranz TM: Early life stress effects on Glucocorticoid-BDNF interplay in the hippocampus. Front Mol Neurosci. 8(68)2015.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Rizos EN, Rontos I, Laskos E, Arsenis G, Michalopoulou PG, Vasilopoulos D, Gournellis R and Lykouras L: Investigation of serum BDNF levels in drug-naive patients with schizophrenia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 32:1308–1311. 2008.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Rizos EN, Papathanasiou M, Michalopoulou PG, Mazioti A, Douzenis A, Kastania A, Nikolaidou P, Laskos E, Vasilopoulou K and Lykouras L: Association of serum BDNF levels with hippocampal volumes in first psychotic episode drug-naive schizophrenic patients. Schizophr Res. 129:201–204. 2011.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Rizos EN, Michalopoulou PG, Siafakas N, Stefanis N, Douzenis A, Rontos I, Laskos E, Kastania A, Zoumpourlis V and Lykouras L: Association of serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor and duration of untreated psychosis in first-episode patients with schizophrenia. Neuropsychobiology. 62:87–90. 2010.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Roth TL, Lubin FD, Funk AJ and Sweatt JD: Lasting epigenetic influence of early-life adversity on the BDNF Gene. Biol Psychiatry. 65:760–769. 2009.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Campbell TS, Donoghue KM, Ghosh U, Nelson CM and Roth TL: Early life stress affects Bdnf regulation: A role for exercise interventions. Int J Mol Sci. 23(11729)2022.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Giannopoulou I, Pagida MA, Briana DD and Panayotacopoulou MT: Perinatal hypoxia as a risk factor for psychopathology later in life: The role of dopamine and neurotrophins. Hormones (Athens). 17:25–32. 2018.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Weissman DG, Lambert HK, Rodman AM, Peverill M, Sheridan MA and McLaughlin KA: Reduced hippocampal and amygdala volume as a mechanism underlying stress sensitization to depression following childhood trauma. Depress Anxiety. 37:916–925. 2020.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Rich AM, Cho YT, Tang Y, Savic A, Krystal JH, Wang F, Xu K and Anticevic A: Amygdala volume is reduced in early course schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging. 250:50–60. 2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Aas M, Navari S, Gibbs A, Mondelli V, Fisher HL, Morgan C, Morgan K, MacCabe J, Reichenberg A, Zanelli J, et al: Is there a link between childhood trauma, cognition, and amygdala and hippocampus volume in first-episode psychosis? Schizophr Res. 137:73–79. 2012.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Rasetti R, Mattay VS, Wiedholz LM, Kolachana BS, Hariri AR, Callicott JH, Meyer-Lindenberg A and Weinberger DR: Evidence that altered amygdala activity in schizophrenia is related to clinical state and not genetic risk. Am J Psychiatry. 166:216–225. 2009.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Marusak HA, Martin KR, Etkin A and Thomason ME: Childhood trauma exposure disrupts the automatic regulation of emotional processing. Neuropsychopharmacology. 40:1250–1258. 2015.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Bjorkquist OA, Olsen EK, Nelson BD and Herbener ES: Altered amygdala-prefrontal connectivity during emotion perception in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res. 175:35–41. 2016.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Aleman A and Kahn RS: Strange feelings: Do amygdala abnormalities dysregulate the emotional brain in schizophrenia? Prog Neurobiol. 77:283–298. 2005.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Stojanovic A, Martorell L, Montalvo I, Ortega L, Monseny R, Vilella E and Labad J: Increased serum interleukin-6 levels in early stages of psychosis: Associations with at-risk mental states and the severity of psychotic symptoms. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 41:23–32. 2014.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar | |
|
Passos IC, Vasconcelos-Moreno MP, Costa LG, Kunz M, Brietzke E, Quevedo J, Salum G, Magalhães PV, Kapczinski F and Kauer-Sant'Anna M: Inflammatory markers in post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Lancet Psychiatry. 2:1002–1012. 2015.PubMed/NCBI View Article : Google Scholar |
